Lu Ban was a carpenter, philosopher, military thinker, stateman and contemporary of Mozi, born in the State of Lu.
His real name was Gongshu Ban , also known as the Master Gongshu , because he was from the State of Lu, he was most commonly referred to as Lu Ban from records. Lu Ban is well notable for his achievements after his subject to the State of Chu.
According to the tradition, he was responsible for several inventions as seen on ''Mozi'' chapter 49 and 50:
* Cloud ladder — a mobile counterweighted siege ladder.
* Grappling hooks and ram — boat implements used during on a naval warfare.
* Wooden bird — a non-powered flying wooden bird which could stay in the air for three days, and had been suggested to be a proto-kite.
There were also others inventions that contributed to him, such as lifting implement for burial, wooden horse carriage and coachman, and some other woodworking that can be see from various texts which thereafter led Lu Ban to be acknowledged as the master craftsman:
* The Book of Lineages , written in about 3rd century BC.
* The Tales of the Marvellous , written in about 5th century by Ren Fang.
* The Records of Origin on Things and Affairs , written in about 11th century by Gao Cheng.
* The Origin on Things , written in about 15th century by Luo Qi.
* The Treatise of Lu Ban , an attributed texts to Lu Ban written between to 15th century.
Monday, September 22, 2008
Liang Shuming
Liang Shuming , born Liang Huanding , courtesy name Shouming , was a reformer in the late Qing Dynasty and early eras of Chinese history.
Born in , Liang was the son of a famous intellectual who committed suicide apparently in despair at the state of the Chinese nation. He had a modern education and exposure to Western writings.
In 1917 he was recruited by Cai Yuanpei to the philosophy department of Beijing University, where he produced an influential book based on his lectures entitled ''Eastern and Western Cultures and their Philosophies'', which introduced some of the doctrines of modern neo-Confucianism. He also displayed the influence of Henri Bergson, then popular in China, as well as Buddhist Yogacara philosophy.
Regarding Western civilization as doomed to eventual failure, Liang did not advocate complete reform and adoption of Western institutions. He nonetheless believed that reform was needed to make China equal to the rest of the world. It was his view that the required prerequisites for these institutions did not exist in China, so they would not succeed if introduced. Instead, he pushed for change to socialism starting at the grassroots level. To this end, he founded the Shandong Rural Reconstruction Institute and helped to found the Democratic League.
Liang was famous for his critique of Marxist class theory, stating that, despite obvious disparities of wealth, Chinese rural society could not be unambiguously classified along class lines. One and the same family would commonly have some members among the "haves" and others among the "have-nots". The class struggle advocated by the Maoists would necessitate kinsmen attacking each other.
After the , he mediated disputes between the Communist and Nationalist parties. After the victory of the Communists in 1949, he was occasionally persecuted in ideological campaigns, but refused to admit any error. He died in Beijing
Born in , Liang was the son of a famous intellectual who committed suicide apparently in despair at the state of the Chinese nation. He had a modern education and exposure to Western writings.
In 1917 he was recruited by Cai Yuanpei to the philosophy department of Beijing University, where he produced an influential book based on his lectures entitled ''Eastern and Western Cultures and their Philosophies'', which introduced some of the doctrines of modern neo-Confucianism. He also displayed the influence of Henri Bergson, then popular in China, as well as Buddhist Yogacara philosophy.
Regarding Western civilization as doomed to eventual failure, Liang did not advocate complete reform and adoption of Western institutions. He nonetheless believed that reform was needed to make China equal to the rest of the world. It was his view that the required prerequisites for these institutions did not exist in China, so they would not succeed if introduced. Instead, he pushed for change to socialism starting at the grassroots level. To this end, he founded the Shandong Rural Reconstruction Institute and helped to found the Democratic League.
Liang was famous for his critique of Marxist class theory, stating that, despite obvious disparities of wealth, Chinese rural society could not be unambiguously classified along class lines. One and the same family would commonly have some members among the "haves" and others among the "have-nots". The class struggle advocated by the Maoists would necessitate kinsmen attacking each other.
After the , he mediated disputes between the Communist and Nationalist parties. After the victory of the Communists in 1949, he was occasionally persecuted in ideological campaigns, but refused to admit any error. He died in Beijing
Li Zhi (Ming Dynasty)
Li Zhi was a prominent Chinese philosopher, historian and writer in the late Ming dynasty.
He was born in Jinjiang, Fujian province, the descendant of a woman from which his seven generation grand father married. He is also often referred to by his courtesy name Zhuowu .
His philosophy was based upon the Neo-Confucianism. Strongly disagreeing with assimilating oneself to conventional behavior, Li Zhi tried to spread his ideas. He can be seen as influenced Wang Yangming , and he preached a form of moral relativism. However, he was ultimately jailed for his attempt to spread "dangerous ideas". He committed suicide in prison in 1602.
Biography
He was born in Jinjiang, Fujian province, the descendant of a woman from which his seven generation grand father married. He is also often referred to by his courtesy name Zhuowu .
His philosophy was based upon the Neo-Confucianism. Strongly disagreeing with assimilating oneself to conventional behavior, Li Zhi tried to spread his ideas. He can be seen as influenced Wang Yangming , and he preached a form of moral relativism. However, he was ultimately jailed for his attempt to spread "dangerous ideas". He committed suicide in prison in 1602.
Li Si
Li Si was the influential Prime Minister of the feudal state and later of the dynasty of , between 246 BC and 208 BC. A famous , he was also a notable calligrapher. Li Si served under two rulers: Qin Shi Huang, king of Qin and later First Emperor of China -- and his son, Qin Er Shi. A powerful minister, he was central to the state's policies, including those on military conquest, draconian centralization of state control, standardization of weights, measures and the written script, and persecution of Confucianism and opponents of Legalism. His methods of administration of China is seen by some as being an early form of totalitarianism.
Li Si was originally from Shang Cai in the kingdom of . When he was young, he was a minor official in Chu. According to the ''Records of the Great Historian'', one day Li Si observed that rats in the restroom were dirty and hungry but the rats in the barnhouse were well fed. He suddenly realized that "the values of people are determined by their social status." He made up his mind to take up politics as his career, which was a common choice for scholars not from noble family during the Warring States Period. After having finished his education with the famous Confucian thinker Xun Zi, he moved to the most powerful state at that time - Qin and tried to advance his political career there.
During his stay in the state of Qin, Li Si became a guest of the prime minister Lu Buwei and got the chance to talk to the ruler of Qin - Qin Shi Huang. Qin Shi Huang was impressed by Li Si's view of how to unify China. Having adopted Li Si's proposal, the ruler of Qin spent generously to lure intellects to the state of Qin and sent out assassins to kill important scholars in other states.
According to the ''Records of the Grand Historian'' , Li Si was responsible for the death of Han Fei. A minor prince in the state of Han, Han Fei was an excellent writer whose essays reached the attention of the king of Qin. When Qin made war on Han, Han Fei was dispatched as a diplomatic envoy to Qin. Li Si, who envied Han Fei's intellect, persuaded the Qin king that he could neither send Han Fei back nor employ him . As a result, Han Fei was imprisoned, and Li Si convinced him to commit suicide by poisoning.
According to Sima Qian, Li Si persuaded Qin Shi Huang to suppress intellectual dissent, and when Confucian scholars protested, 460 of them were buried alive. Li Si himself penned the edict in 214 BC which ordered widespread destruction of historical records and literature in 213 BC, including key Confucian texts, which he thought detrimental to the welfare of the state.
When Qin Shi Huang died while away from the capital, Li Si and the chief eunuch Zhao Gao suppressed the late emperor's choice of successor, caused the crown prince to commit suicide, and installed another prince, Qin Er Shi in his place. During the tumultuous aftermath, Zhao Gao convinced the new emperor to install his followers in official positions. When his power base was secure enough, Zhao Gao then had Li Si killed in 208 BC in a grisly manner -- being cut in half in public. Zhao Gao in turn was killed by Ziying in revenge for Gao's killing of Ziying's uncle Emperor Qin Er Shi.
Li Si is mentioned in Elias Canetti's novel: Auto-da-fe .
A staunch believer in a highly bureacratic system, Li Si is considered to have been central to the efficiency of the state of Qin and the success of its military conquest. He was also instrumental in systemizing standard measures and currency in post-unified China. He further helped systemize the written Chinese language by promulgating as the imperial standard the small seal script which had been in use in the state of Qin all along. In this process, variant graphs within the Qin script were proscribed, as were variant scripts from the different regions which had been conquered. Contrary to popular belief, though, Li Si did not "invent" small seal script.
Early Life
Li Si was originally from Shang Cai in the kingdom of . When he was young, he was a minor official in Chu. According to the ''Records of the Great Historian'', one day Li Si observed that rats in the restroom were dirty and hungry but the rats in the barnhouse were well fed. He suddenly realized that "the values of people are determined by their social status." He made up his mind to take up politics as his career, which was a common choice for scholars not from noble family during the Warring States Period. After having finished his education with the famous Confucian thinker Xun Zi, he moved to the most powerful state at that time - Qin and tried to advance his political career there.
Career in Qin
During his stay in the state of Qin, Li Si became a guest of the prime minister Lu Buwei and got the chance to talk to the ruler of Qin - Qin Shi Huang. Qin Shi Huang was impressed by Li Si's view of how to unify China. Having adopted Li Si's proposal, the ruler of Qin spent generously to lure intellects to the state of Qin and sent out assassins to kill important scholars in other states.
According to the ''Records of the Grand Historian'' , Li Si was responsible for the death of Han Fei. A minor prince in the state of Han, Han Fei was an excellent writer whose essays reached the attention of the king of Qin. When Qin made war on Han, Han Fei was dispatched as a diplomatic envoy to Qin. Li Si, who envied Han Fei's intellect, persuaded the Qin king that he could neither send Han Fei back nor employ him . As a result, Han Fei was imprisoned, and Li Si convinced him to commit suicide by poisoning.
According to Sima Qian, Li Si persuaded Qin Shi Huang to suppress intellectual dissent, and when Confucian scholars protested, 460 of them were buried alive. Li Si himself penned the edict in 214 BC which ordered widespread destruction of historical records and literature in 213 BC, including key Confucian texts, which he thought detrimental to the welfare of the state.
Death
When Qin Shi Huang died while away from the capital, Li Si and the chief eunuch Zhao Gao suppressed the late emperor's choice of successor, caused the crown prince to commit suicide, and installed another prince, Qin Er Shi in his place. During the tumultuous aftermath, Zhao Gao convinced the new emperor to install his followers in official positions. When his power base was secure enough, Zhao Gao then had Li Si killed in 208 BC in a grisly manner -- being cut in half in public. Zhao Gao in turn was killed by Ziying in revenge for Gao's killing of Ziying's uncle Emperor Qin Er Shi.
Li Si is mentioned in Elias Canetti's novel: Auto-da-fe .
Contributions
A staunch believer in a highly bureacratic system, Li Si is considered to have been central to the efficiency of the state of Qin and the success of its military conquest. He was also instrumental in systemizing standard measures and currency in post-unified China. He further helped systemize the written Chinese language by promulgating as the imperial standard the small seal script which had been in use in the state of Qin all along. In this process, variant graphs within the Qin script were proscribed, as were variant scripts from the different regions which had been conquered. Contrary to popular belief, though, Li Si did not "invent" small seal script.
Li Shicen
Li Shicen , born Li Bangfan , was a Chinese philosopher and of advanced philosophical journals of the May Fourth Movement ''Min Duo'' and ''Zhongguo Jiaoyu Zazhi'' . Li is best remembered as an exponent of the thought of Nietzsche, who was among the Western thinkers most influential in China in the early era.
Li Shicen belonged to circle of radical intellectuals and activists who emerged in Hunan in the early 20th century. Another was Mao Zedong. Li in fact had several contacts with Mao; as young men both wrote manuals on swimming, and Mao's later widely publicized exploit of swimming in the Yangtze River may be traced back to Li's inspiration.
Li produced a number of books and articles which are still read as expositions of Western philosophy, and are of value in understanding the reception of ideas in this era. ''Rensheng Zhexue'' was his longest published work. Li produced special issues of ''Min Duo'' devoted to a number of influential philosophers including Nietzsche, Bergson and Eucken. In the early 1920s, Li's circle of friends and acquaintances included Guo Moruo and Zhu Qianzhi.
Following a sojourn in Europe in the late 1920s, Li returned to China and announced that materialist dialectics was the "philosophy of the future." This conversion from neo-romanticism to Marxism was seen as a signal event at the time, and was a harbinger of many that were follow.
Prior to this he had been involved in scandal involving a female student. He published a ''Qingbian Wanzi Shu'' in response, and which expresses a neo-romantic philosophy typical of the era.
Li Shicen belonged to circle of radical intellectuals and activists who emerged in Hunan in the early 20th century. Another was Mao Zedong. Li in fact had several contacts with Mao; as young men both wrote manuals on swimming, and Mao's later widely publicized exploit of swimming in the Yangtze River may be traced back to Li's inspiration.
Li produced a number of books and articles which are still read as expositions of Western philosophy, and are of value in understanding the reception of ideas in this era. ''Rensheng Zhexue'' was his longest published work. Li produced special issues of ''Min Duo'' devoted to a number of influential philosophers including Nietzsche, Bergson and Eucken. In the early 1920s, Li's circle of friends and acquaintances included Guo Moruo and Zhu Qianzhi.
Following a sojourn in Europe in the late 1920s, Li returned to China and announced that materialist dialectics was the "philosophy of the future." This conversion from neo-romanticism to Marxism was seen as a signal event at the time, and was a harbinger of many that were follow.
Prior to this he had been involved in scandal involving a female student. He published a ''Qingbian Wanzi Shu'' in response, and which expresses a neo-romantic philosophy typical of the era.
Li Shenzhi
Li Zhenzhi was a prominent Chinese social scientist and public intellectual. For long a trusted spokesperson of the Chinese Communist Party, he rose to become Vice-President of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences.
Dismissed from this position for blunt criticisms of the regime, he emerged in the 1990s as a powerful critic of authoritarianism, and a prominent exponent of Chinese liberalism.
His death in 2003, which had been preceded by a series of widely circulated professions of his liberal commitment, prompted an outpouring of adulatory writings, securing his posthumous status as a champion of intellectual freedom under difficult circumstances.
From 1941 to 1945 Li studied economics in Beijing , and Shanghai . In November 1944, he participated in the Communist Party's secret "National Salvation Association of Democratic Youth."
Formally joining the Party in 1948, he became international editor in chief and Deputy Director of the Xinhua News Agency and later served as Premier Zhou Enlai's diplomatic secretary. From late 1978 to early 1980, Li was a member of the International Issues Writing Group established by the Central Committee. Meanwhile, he accompanied party supremo Deng Xiaoping on his visit to the USA, serving as adviser to the delegation.
He was transferred to the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in 1980 to set up the United States Research Institute, of which he was appointed Director in 1982.
In 1985 he became a vice president CASS , retaining his directorship of the United States Research Institute.
He was dismissed in 1990 due to blunt criticisms of the June Fourth events in Tiananmen, and took medical retirement in 1995.
There has been controversy about Li's liberal-democratic credentials, focusing on his failure to completely break with the Communist Party. According to contemporary critics like Cao Changqing and Zhong Weiguang , he compares poorly with Eastern bloc liberals like Milovan ?ilas , or, in China, resolute non-collaborators like Chen Yinke and original, if tragically persecuted thinkers like Gu Zhun.
Xu Youyu responded to this view that conditions for Chinese intellectuals had been considerably harsher than for East Europeans like Djilas; to be fair, Li should be placed in comparison with other committed but "enlightened" communists like and Yu Guangyuan.
Dismissed from this position for blunt criticisms of the regime, he emerged in the 1990s as a powerful critic of authoritarianism, and a prominent exponent of Chinese liberalism.
His death in 2003, which had been preceded by a series of widely circulated professions of his liberal commitment, prompted an outpouring of adulatory writings, securing his posthumous status as a champion of intellectual freedom under difficult circumstances.
From 1941 to 1945 Li studied economics in Beijing , and Shanghai . In November 1944, he participated in the Communist Party's secret "National Salvation Association of Democratic Youth."
Formally joining the Party in 1948, he became international editor in chief and Deputy Director of the Xinhua News Agency and later served as Premier Zhou Enlai's diplomatic secretary. From late 1978 to early 1980, Li was a member of the International Issues Writing Group established by the Central Committee. Meanwhile, he accompanied party supremo Deng Xiaoping on his visit to the USA, serving as adviser to the delegation.
He was transferred to the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in 1980 to set up the United States Research Institute, of which he was appointed Director in 1982.
In 1985 he became a vice president CASS , retaining his directorship of the United States Research Institute.
He was dismissed in 1990 due to blunt criticisms of the June Fourth events in Tiananmen, and took medical retirement in 1995.
There has been controversy about Li's liberal-democratic credentials, focusing on his failure to completely break with the Communist Party. According to contemporary critics like Cao Changqing and Zhong Weiguang , he compares poorly with Eastern bloc liberals like Milovan ?ilas , or, in China, resolute non-collaborators like Chen Yinke and original, if tragically persecuted thinkers like Gu Zhun.
Xu Youyu responded to this view that conditions for Chinese intellectuals had been considerably harsher than for East Europeans like Djilas; to be fair, Li should be placed in comparison with other committed but "enlightened" communists like and Yu Guangyuan.
Li Kui (legalist)
Li Kui was an ancient Chinese government minister and court advisor to Marquis Wen of Wei in the state of . In 407 BC, he wrote the ''Book of Law'' , which was the basis for the codified laws of the and dynasties. It had a deep influence on state ministers of such as Shang Yang, who formulated the dogma and basis of the harsh Chinese philosophy of . Along with his contemporary Ximen Bao, he was given oversight in construction of canal and irrigation projects in the State of Wei.
Li Ao (philosopher)
Li Ao , courtesy name Xizhi , was Chinese philosopher and prose writer of the Tang Dynasty. He was born in present-day , but some accounts relates he was from . After achieving the degree of Jinshi in 798, he joined the imperial bureaucracy and served in the history department at Changan.
In 809, he was assigned to the southern provinces and made the trip with his pregnant wife from Luoyang to Guangzhou over nine months. The course they took included the modern provinces of Henan, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi and Guangdong. His record of the trip, the ''Lainan Lu'' , contains detailed descriptions of medieval southern China and is considered one of the earliest forms of the diary.
At the time of his death in , Li held the position of Governor of East Shannan Circuit . There is some debate about the year of his death. The ''Book of Tang'' gives the date of 841. While the Qing Dynasty historians, however, have argued that it should be 836.
Late imperial scholars regarded Li as the founder of one of the ten great schools of philosophy in the Tang and dynasties. As a philosopher, Li was heavily influenced by Buddhism and also the great neo-Confucian Han Yu. His extensive writings are preserved in the ''Liwengong Wenji'' . This work is presumably a later edition of the ten chapters of the ''Li Ao Ji'' as referenced in the ''New Book of Tang''. Some of the few poems he produced can also be found in the ''Quan Tang Shi'' .
In 809, he was assigned to the southern provinces and made the trip with his pregnant wife from Luoyang to Guangzhou over nine months. The course they took included the modern provinces of Henan, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi and Guangdong. His record of the trip, the ''Lainan Lu'' , contains detailed descriptions of medieval southern China and is considered one of the earliest forms of the diary.
At the time of his death in , Li held the position of Governor of East Shannan Circuit . There is some debate about the year of his death. The ''Book of Tang'' gives the date of 841. While the Qing Dynasty historians, however, have argued that it should be 836.
Late imperial scholars regarded Li as the founder of one of the ten great schools of philosophy in the Tang and dynasties. As a philosopher, Li was heavily influenced by Buddhism and also the great neo-Confucian Han Yu. His extensive writings are preserved in the ''Liwengong Wenji'' . This work is presumably a later edition of the ten chapters of the ''Li Ao Ji'' as referenced in the ''New Book of Tang''. Some of the few poems he produced can also be found in the ''Quan Tang Shi'' .
Jing Fang
Jing Fang , born Li Fang , courtesy name Junming , was a , mathematician and astrologer born in present-day during the Han Dynasty . He was the first to notice how closely a succession of 53 just fifths approximates 31 octaves. This observation would much later lead to the discovery of 53 equal temperament in the seventeenth century. He was also an advocate of the theory that the light emanating from the spherical Moon was of sunlight.
According to the 3rd century historian Sima Biao, Jing Fang received an appointment as an official in the Bureau of Music under Emperor Yuan of Han . The historian Ban Gu wrote that Jing Fang was an expert at divination and making predictions from the hexagrams of the ancient ''Yijing''. and extended this method fivefold to a scale composed of 60 fifths, finding that after 53 new values became incredibly close to tones already calculated.
He accomplished this calculation by beginning with a suitable large starting value that could be divided by three easily, and proceeded to calculate the relative values of successive tones by the following method:
# Divide the value by three.
# Add this value to the original.
# The new value is now equal to of the original, or a perfect fourth, which is equivalent to a perfect fifth inverted at the octave.
# Proceed now from this new value to generate the next tone; repeat until all tones have been generated.
To produce an exact calculation, some 26 digits of accuracy would have been required. Instead, by rounding to about 6 digits, his calculations are within 0.0145 of exactness, which is a difference much finer than is usually perceptible. The final value he gave for the ratio between this 53rd fifth and the original was .
Life and career
According to the 3rd century historian Sima Biao, Jing Fang received an appointment as an official in the Bureau of Music under Emperor Yuan of Han . The historian Ban Gu wrote that Jing Fang was an expert at divination and making predictions from the hexagrams of the ancient ''Yijing''. and extended this method fivefold to a scale composed of 60 fifths, finding that after 53 new values became incredibly close to tones already calculated.
He accomplished this calculation by beginning with a suitable large starting value that could be divided by three easily, and proceeded to calculate the relative values of successive tones by the following method:
# Divide the value by three.
# Add this value to the original.
# The new value is now equal to of the original, or a perfect fourth, which is equivalent to a perfect fifth inverted at the octave.
# Proceed now from this new value to generate the next tone; repeat until all tones have been generated.
To produce an exact calculation, some 26 digits of accuracy would have been required. Instead, by rounding to about 6 digits, his calculations are within 0.0145 of exactness, which is a difference much finer than is usually perceptible. The final value he gave for the ratio between this 53rd fifth and the original was .
Jin Yuelin
Jin Yuelin was a Chinese philosopher and logician. He was born in Changsha, Hunan, attended Tsinghua University from 1911-1914, obtained Ph.D. in Political Science from Columbia University in 1920. In 1926, Jin founded the Department of Philosophy at Tsinghua University.
Among the first to systematically introduce modern logic into China, Jin also founded a new philosophical system combining elements from Western and Chinese philosophical traditions .
* On Logic
* On Logos
* On Knowledge
Among the first to systematically introduce modern logic into China, Jin also founded a new philosophical system combining elements from Western and Chinese philosophical traditions .
Works
* On Logic
* On Logos
* On Knowledge
Ji Hu
J. Hu, also known as Ji Hu, although his full name is unknown, was a philosopher, that lived during the Zhou Dynasty and he is quite unknown outside the region of Anhui. He was convinced that China will fall in darkness when "the water and the ground flow in the light".
J. Hu is believed to come from a family of poor farmers in Anhui, and since he was very young he showed an unusual intelligence and ambition. Owing to this, he married the daughter of a rich merchant and had a son with her, pretending that he was a powerful landowner. During some years he lived from her money, and he dedicated himself to his most beloved subject, philosophy.
But his deception was eventually found out, and he was forced to escape to Hao, then the imperial capital. There, he tried to expose his revolutionary thoughts about life, which were brutally rejected. Soon he was poor again, and in his frustration he left the city, resolving to live as a hermit the rest of his life.
He returned to his home town, where he dedicated all of his time to meditation. It is said that one day, while he was eating a bowl of rice given to him by a farmer, he reached enlightenment, and saw that his quest was pointless. In his words: "The only thing worth achieving is the end of the achievement itself: noble ignorance"
Then he found his son and convinced him to become his disciple, who managed to bring more people to his father. His hermetic style was sometimes annoying to his more ignorant disciples, and one of them even left J. Hu blind with his own fingers, trying to make him abandon his philosophy. The old master supposedly said: "The fool cannot take the true eyes of truth, so the sage still can see the path" Over the years, most of his followers abandoned him.
J. Hu died when his roof fell over him during a storm, alone and forgotten. The only records of his existence come from his son's notes. The exact date of his death is unknown, although he is believed to have lived between fifty or sixty years.
Biographical notes
J. Hu is believed to come from a family of poor farmers in Anhui, and since he was very young he showed an unusual intelligence and ambition. Owing to this, he married the daughter of a rich merchant and had a son with her, pretending that he was a powerful landowner. During some years he lived from her money, and he dedicated himself to his most beloved subject, philosophy.
But his deception was eventually found out, and he was forced to escape to Hao, then the imperial capital. There, he tried to expose his revolutionary thoughts about life, which were brutally rejected. Soon he was poor again, and in his frustration he left the city, resolving to live as a hermit the rest of his life.
He returned to his home town, where he dedicated all of his time to meditation. It is said that one day, while he was eating a bowl of rice given to him by a farmer, he reached enlightenment, and saw that his quest was pointless. In his words: "The only thing worth achieving is the end of the achievement itself: noble ignorance"
Then he found his son and convinced him to become his disciple, who managed to bring more people to his father. His hermetic style was sometimes annoying to his more ignorant disciples, and one of them even left J. Hu blind with his own fingers, trying to make him abandon his philosophy. The old master supposedly said: "The fool cannot take the true eyes of truth, so the sage still can see the path" Over the years, most of his followers abandoned him.
J. Hu died when his roof fell over him during a storm, alone and forgotten. The only records of his existence come from his son's notes. The exact date of his death is unknown, although he is believed to have lived between fifty or sixty years.
Huiyuan (Buddhist)
Huiyuan was a Buddhist teacher who founded a monastery on Mount Lushan in Jiangxi province and wrote the text ''On Why Monks Do Not Bow Down Before Kings'' in 404 AD. He was born in Shanxi province but after a long life of Buddhist teaching he wound up in Hubei province, where he died in 416. Although he was born in the north, he would eventually move south to live within the bounds of the Eastern Jin Dynasty.
Huiyuan was posthumously named First Patriarch of the . His disciples included Huiguan , Sengji , and Faan .
Huiyuan began studying Zhuangzi and Laozi at a young age, as well as the teachings of Confucius. However, at the age of 21 he was converted in Hebei Province by the Buddhist Dao An, who was a Chinese disciple of a Kuchan missionary. Hearing the sermons of Dao An convinced Huiyuan to "leave the family" and embark on a life of Buddhist teachings. Later, he lived at East Forest Temple at Mount Lushan. His teachings were various, including the vinaya , meditation , abhidharma and Prajna or wisdom. Besides his teaching and interaction with lay followers of the Buddhist faith, he also upheld a learned correspondence with the monk Kumarajiva.
In the year 402 he organized a group of monks and lay people into a Mahayana sect known as Pure Land Buddhism, the Pure Land being the western paradise of the buddha Amitabha.
In the year 404, Huiyuan wrote a treatise ''On Why Monks Do Not Bow Down Before Kings''. This book symbolized his efforts to assert the political independence of Buddhist clergy from the courts of monarchic rulers. At the same time, it was a religious and political text that aimed to convince monarchs and Confucian-minded ministers of state that followers of Buddhism were ultimately not subversive. He argued that Buddhists could make good subjects in a kingdom due to their beliefs in retribution of karma and the desire to be reborn in paradise. Despite the Buddhists' reputation of leaving their family behind for a monastic life, Huiyuan stated "those who rejoice in the Way of the Buddha invariably first serve their parents and obey their lords."
Huiyuan was posthumously named First Patriarch of the . His disciples included Huiguan , Sengji , and Faan .
Life
Huiyuan began studying Zhuangzi and Laozi at a young age, as well as the teachings of Confucius. However, at the age of 21 he was converted in Hebei Province by the Buddhist Dao An, who was a Chinese disciple of a Kuchan missionary. Hearing the sermons of Dao An convinced Huiyuan to "leave the family" and embark on a life of Buddhist teachings. Later, he lived at East Forest Temple at Mount Lushan. His teachings were various, including the vinaya , meditation , abhidharma and Prajna or wisdom. Besides his teaching and interaction with lay followers of the Buddhist faith, he also upheld a learned correspondence with the monk Kumarajiva.
In the year 402 he organized a group of monks and lay people into a Mahayana sect known as Pure Land Buddhism, the Pure Land being the western paradise of the buddha Amitabha.
In the year 404, Huiyuan wrote a treatise ''On Why Monks Do Not Bow Down Before Kings''. This book symbolized his efforts to assert the political independence of Buddhist clergy from the courts of monarchic rulers. At the same time, it was a religious and political text that aimed to convince monarchs and Confucian-minded ministers of state that followers of Buddhism were ultimately not subversive. He argued that Buddhists could make good subjects in a kingdom due to their beliefs in retribution of karma and the desire to be reborn in paradise. Despite the Buddhists' reputation of leaving their family behind for a monastic life, Huiyuan stated "those who rejoice in the Way of the Buddha invariably first serve their parents and obey their lords."
Hui Shi
Hui Shi , or Huizi , was a Chinese philosopher during the Warring States Period. He was a representative of the School of Names , and is famous for ten paradoxes about the relativity of time and space, for instance, "I set off for today and came there yesterday."
The philosophical writings of Hui Shi are no longer extant, but several Chinese classic texts refer to him, including the ''Zhan Guo Ce'', ''Lüshi Chunqiu'', '''', ''Xunzi'', and most frequently, the ''Zhuangzi''.
Nine ''Zhuangzi'' chapters mention Hui Shi, calling him "Huizi" 26 times and "Hui Shi" 9 times. Chapter 33, which summarizes Warring States philosophies, contains all of the latter 9 references by name.
Hui Shih was a man of many devices and his writings would fill five carriages. But his doctrines were jumbled and perverse and his words wide of the mark. His way of dealing with things may be seen from these sayings:
"The largest thing has nothing beyond it; it is called the One of largeness. The smallest thing has nothing within it; it is called the One of smallness."
"That which has no thickness cannot be piled up; yet it is a thousand ''li'' in dimension."
"Heaven is as low as earth; mountains and marshes are on the same level."
"The sun at noon is the sun setting. The thing born is the thing dying."
"Great similarities are different from little similarities; these are called the little similarities and differences. The ten thousand things are all similar and are all different; these are called the great similarities and differences."
"The southern region has no limit and yet has a limit."
"I set off for Yueh today and came there yesterday."
"Linked rings can be separated."
"I know the center of the world: it is north of Yen and south of Yueh."
"Let love embrace the ten thousand things; Heaven and earth are a single body."
"With sayings such as these, Hui Shih tried to introduce a more magnanimous view of the world and to enlighten the rhetoricians.
Most of the other ''Zhuangzi'' passages portray Huizi as a friendly rival of Zhuangzi, an intellectual foil who argues the alternative viewpoint, or criticizes the Daoist perspective, often with moments of humor. The best known of the Zhuang-Hui dialogues concerns the subjectivity of happiness.
Chuang Tzu and Hui Tzu were strolling along the dam of the Hao River when Chuang Tzu said, "See how the minnows come out and dart around where they please! That's what fish really enjoy!"
Hui Tzu said, "You're not a fish - how do you know what fish enjoy?"
Chuang Tzu said, "You're not I, so how do you know I don't know what fish enjoy?"
Hui Tzu said, "I'm not you, so I certainly don't know what you know. On the other hand, you're certainly not a fish ? so that still proves you don't know what fish enjoy!"
Chuang Tzu said, "Let's go back to your original question, please. You asked me how I know what fish enjoy ? so you already knew I knew it when you asked the question. I know it by standing here beside the Hao."
According to these ancient Daoist stories, Zhuangzi and Huizi remained friendly rivals until death.
Chuang Tzu was accompanying a funeral when he passed by the grave of Hui Tzu. Turning to his attendants, he said, "There was once a plasterer who, if he got a speck of mud on the tip of his nose no thicker than a fly's wing, would get his friend Carpenter Shih to slice it off for him. Carpenter Shih, whirling his hatchet with a noise like the wind, would accept the assignment and proceed to slice, removing every bit of mud without injury to the nose, while the plasterer just stood there completely unperturbed. Lord Yuan of Sung, hearing of this feat, summoned Carpenter Shih and said, 'Could you try performing it for me?' But Carpenter Shih replied, 'It's true that I was once able to slice like that but the material I worked on has been dead these many years.' Since you died, Master Hui, I have had no material to work on. There's no one I can talk to any more."
The philosophical writings of Hui Shi are no longer extant, but several Chinese classic texts refer to him, including the ''Zhan Guo Ce'', ''Lüshi Chunqiu'', '''', ''Xunzi'', and most frequently, the ''Zhuangzi''.
Nine ''Zhuangzi'' chapters mention Hui Shi, calling him "Huizi" 26 times and "Hui Shi" 9 times. Chapter 33, which summarizes Warring States philosophies, contains all of the latter 9 references by name.
Hui Shih was a man of many devices and his writings would fill five carriages. But his doctrines were jumbled and perverse and his words wide of the mark. His way of dealing with things may be seen from these sayings:
"The largest thing has nothing beyond it; it is called the One of largeness. The smallest thing has nothing within it; it is called the One of smallness."
"That which has no thickness cannot be piled up; yet it is a thousand ''li'' in dimension."
"Heaven is as low as earth; mountains and marshes are on the same level."
"The sun at noon is the sun setting. The thing born is the thing dying."
"Great similarities are different from little similarities; these are called the little similarities and differences. The ten thousand things are all similar and are all different; these are called the great similarities and differences."
"The southern region has no limit and yet has a limit."
"I set off for Yueh today and came there yesterday."
"Linked rings can be separated."
"I know the center of the world: it is north of Yen and south of Yueh."
"Let love embrace the ten thousand things; Heaven and earth are a single body."
"With sayings such as these, Hui Shih tried to introduce a more magnanimous view of the world and to enlighten the rhetoricians.
Most of the other ''Zhuangzi'' passages portray Huizi as a friendly rival of Zhuangzi, an intellectual foil who argues the alternative viewpoint, or criticizes the Daoist perspective, often with moments of humor. The best known of the Zhuang-Hui dialogues concerns the subjectivity of happiness.
Chuang Tzu and Hui Tzu were strolling along the dam of the Hao River when Chuang Tzu said, "See how the minnows come out and dart around where they please! That's what fish really enjoy!"
Hui Tzu said, "You're not a fish - how do you know what fish enjoy?"
Chuang Tzu said, "You're not I, so how do you know I don't know what fish enjoy?"
Hui Tzu said, "I'm not you, so I certainly don't know what you know. On the other hand, you're certainly not a fish ? so that still proves you don't know what fish enjoy!"
Chuang Tzu said, "Let's go back to your original question, please. You asked me how I know what fish enjoy ? so you already knew I knew it when you asked the question. I know it by standing here beside the Hao."
According to these ancient Daoist stories, Zhuangzi and Huizi remained friendly rivals until death.
Chuang Tzu was accompanying a funeral when he passed by the grave of Hui Tzu. Turning to his attendants, he said, "There was once a plasterer who, if he got a speck of mud on the tip of his nose no thicker than a fly's wing, would get his friend Carpenter Shih to slice it off for him. Carpenter Shih, whirling his hatchet with a noise like the wind, would accept the assignment and proceed to slice, removing every bit of mud without injury to the nose, while the plasterer just stood there completely unperturbed. Lord Yuan of Sung, hearing of this feat, summoned Carpenter Shih and said, 'Could you try performing it for me?' But Carpenter Shih replied, 'It's true that I was once able to slice like that but the material I worked on has been dead these many years.' Since you died, Master Hui, I have had no material to work on. There's no one I can talk to any more."
Hu Shi
Hu Shih , born Hu Hung-hsing , was a Chinese philosopher and essayist. His courtesy name was Shih-chih . Hu is widely recognized today as a key contributor to Chinese liberalism and language reform in his advocacy for the use of vernacular Chinese. He was also an influential Redology scholar.
Hu was born in Shanghai to Hu Chuan and Feng Shundi . His ancestors were from . In January 1904, his family established an arranged marriage for Hu with Chiang Tung-hsiu , an illiterate girl with bound feet who was one year older than he was. The marriage took place in December 1917. Hu received his fundamental education in Jixi and Shanghai.
Hu became a "national scholar" through funds appropriated from the Boxer Rebellion Indemnity Scholarship Program. On 16 August 1910, he was sent to study agriculture at Cornell University in the United States. In 1912 he changed his major to philosophy and literature. After receiving his undergraduate degree, he went to Columbia University to study philosophy. At Columbia he was greatly influenced by his professor, John Dewey, and Hu became Dewey's translator and a lifelong advocate of pragmatic evolutionary change. He returned to lecture in Peking University. During his tenure there, he received support from Chen Duxiu, editor of the influential journal ''New Youth'', quickly gaining much attention and influence. Hu soon became one of the leading and influential intellectuals during the May Fourth Movement and later the New Culture Movement.
He quit ''New Youth'' in the 1920s and published several political newspapers and journals with his friends. His most important contribution was the promotion of vernacular Chinese in literature to replace Classical Chinese, which ideally made it easier for the ordinary person to read. The significance of this for Chinese culture was great -- as John Fairbank put it, "the tyranny of the classics had been broken".
Hu was the Republic of China's to the United States of America between 1938 and 1942. He was recalled in September 1942 and was replaced by Wei Tao-ming, who had previously represented the ROC in Vichy France. Hu then served as chancellor of Peking University between 1946 and 1948, and later president of the Academia Sinica in Taipei, where he remained until his death by in at the age of 71. He was chief executive of the Free China Journal, which was eventually shut down for criticizing Chiang Kai-shek.
Hu Shih's work fell into disrepute in mainland China until a 1986 article, written by Ji Xianlin , "A Few Words for Hu Shi", advocated acknowledging not only Hu Shih's mistakes, but also his contributions to modern Chinese literature. His article was sufficiently convincing to many scholars that it caused a re-evaluation of the development of modern Chinese literature and the role of Hu Shi.
Unlike other figures of the Warlord Era in the Republic of China, Hu was a staunch supporter of just one main current of thought: pragmatism. Many of his writings used these ideas to advocate changes in China.
Hu was well known as the primary advocate for the literary revolution of the era, a movement which aimed to replace scholarly classical Chinese in writing with the vernacular spoken language, and to cultivate and stimulate new forms of literature. In an article originally published in ''New Youth'' in January titled "A Preliminary Discussion of Literature Reform", Hu originally emphasized eight guidelines that all Chinese writers should take to heart in writing:
#Write with substance. By this, Hu meant that literature should contain real feeling and human thought. This was intended to be a contrast to the recent poetry with rhymes and phrases that Hu saw as being empty.
#Do not imitate the ancients. Literature should not be written in the styles of long ago, but rather in the modern style of the present era.
#Respect grammar. Hu did not elaborate at length on this point, merely stating that some recent forms of poetry had neglected proper grammar.
#Reject melancholy. Recent young authors often chose grave pen names, and wrote on such topics as death. Hu rejected this way of thinking as being unproductive in solving modern problems.
#Eliminate old clichés. The Chinese language has always had numerous four-character sayings and phrases used to describe events. Hu implored writers to use their own words in descriptions, and deplored those who did not.
#Do not use allusions. By this, Hu was referring to the practice of comparing present events with historical events even when there is no meaningful analogy.
#Do not use couplets or parallelism. Though these forms had been pursued by earlier writers, Hu believed that modern writers first needed to learn the basics of substance and quality, before returning to these matters of subtlety and delicacy.
#Do not avoid popular expressions or popular forms of characters. This rule, perhaps the most well-known, ties in directly with Hu's belief that modern literature should be written in the vernacular, rather than in Classical Chinese. He believed that this practice had historical precedents, and led to greater understanding of important texts.
In April of , Hu published a second article in ''New Youth'', this one titled "Constructive Literary Revolution - A Literature of National Speech". In it, he simplified the original eight points into just four:
#Speak only when you have something to say. This is analogous to the first point above.
#Speak what you want to say and say it in the way you want to say it. This combines points two through six above.
#Speak what is your own and not that of someone else. This is a rewording of point seven.
#Speak in the language of the time in which you live. This refers again to the replacement of Classical Chinese with the vernacular language.
:"Don't You Forget"
:
:Son,
:Over twenty years I taught you to love this country,
:But God tell me how!
:Don't you forget:
:It's our country's soldiers,
:That made your Aunt suicide in shame,
:And did the same to Ah Hsing,
:And to your wife,
:And shot to death!
:Don't you forget:
:Who cut off your finger,
:Who beat your father to a mess like this!
:Who burned this village?
:Shit! The fire is coming!
:Go, for your own sake! Don't die with me!
:Wait!
:Don't you forget:
:Your dying father only wished this country occupied,
:By the Cossacks,
:Or the Prussians,
:Anyone!
:Any life ever worse than -- this !?
:Original poem: ""
Biography
Hu was born in Shanghai to Hu Chuan and Feng Shundi . His ancestors were from . In January 1904, his family established an arranged marriage for Hu with Chiang Tung-hsiu , an illiterate girl with bound feet who was one year older than he was. The marriage took place in December 1917. Hu received his fundamental education in Jixi and Shanghai.
Hu became a "national scholar" through funds appropriated from the Boxer Rebellion Indemnity Scholarship Program. On 16 August 1910, he was sent to study agriculture at Cornell University in the United States. In 1912 he changed his major to philosophy and literature. After receiving his undergraduate degree, he went to Columbia University to study philosophy. At Columbia he was greatly influenced by his professor, John Dewey, and Hu became Dewey's translator and a lifelong advocate of pragmatic evolutionary change. He returned to lecture in Peking University. During his tenure there, he received support from Chen Duxiu, editor of the influential journal ''New Youth'', quickly gaining much attention and influence. Hu soon became one of the leading and influential intellectuals during the May Fourth Movement and later the New Culture Movement.
He quit ''New Youth'' in the 1920s and published several political newspapers and journals with his friends. His most important contribution was the promotion of vernacular Chinese in literature to replace Classical Chinese, which ideally made it easier for the ordinary person to read. The significance of this for Chinese culture was great -- as John Fairbank put it, "the tyranny of the classics had been broken".
Hu was the Republic of China's to the United States of America between 1938 and 1942. He was recalled in September 1942 and was replaced by Wei Tao-ming, who had previously represented the ROC in Vichy France. Hu then served as chancellor of Peking University between 1946 and 1948, and later president of the Academia Sinica in Taipei, where he remained until his death by in at the age of 71. He was chief executive of the Free China Journal, which was eventually shut down for criticizing Chiang Kai-shek.
Hu Shih's work fell into disrepute in mainland China until a 1986 article, written by Ji Xianlin , "A Few Words for Hu Shi", advocated acknowledging not only Hu Shih's mistakes, but also his contributions to modern Chinese literature. His article was sufficiently convincing to many scholars that it caused a re-evaluation of the development of modern Chinese literature and the role of Hu Shi.
Writings
Unlike other figures of the Warlord Era in the Republic of China, Hu was a staunch supporter of just one main current of thought: pragmatism. Many of his writings used these ideas to advocate changes in China.
Hu was well known as the primary advocate for the literary revolution of the era, a movement which aimed to replace scholarly classical Chinese in writing with the vernacular spoken language, and to cultivate and stimulate new forms of literature. In an article originally published in ''New Youth'' in January titled "A Preliminary Discussion of Literature Reform", Hu originally emphasized eight guidelines that all Chinese writers should take to heart in writing:
#Write with substance. By this, Hu meant that literature should contain real feeling and human thought. This was intended to be a contrast to the recent poetry with rhymes and phrases that Hu saw as being empty.
#Do not imitate the ancients. Literature should not be written in the styles of long ago, but rather in the modern style of the present era.
#Respect grammar. Hu did not elaborate at length on this point, merely stating that some recent forms of poetry had neglected proper grammar.
#Reject melancholy. Recent young authors often chose grave pen names, and wrote on such topics as death. Hu rejected this way of thinking as being unproductive in solving modern problems.
#Eliminate old clichés. The Chinese language has always had numerous four-character sayings and phrases used to describe events. Hu implored writers to use their own words in descriptions, and deplored those who did not.
#Do not use allusions. By this, Hu was referring to the practice of comparing present events with historical events even when there is no meaningful analogy.
#Do not use couplets or parallelism. Though these forms had been pursued by earlier writers, Hu believed that modern writers first needed to learn the basics of substance and quality, before returning to these matters of subtlety and delicacy.
#Do not avoid popular expressions or popular forms of characters. This rule, perhaps the most well-known, ties in directly with Hu's belief that modern literature should be written in the vernacular, rather than in Classical Chinese. He believed that this practice had historical precedents, and led to greater understanding of important texts.
In April of , Hu published a second article in ''New Youth'', this one titled "Constructive Literary Revolution - A Literature of National Speech". In it, he simplified the original eight points into just four:
#Speak only when you have something to say. This is analogous to the first point above.
#Speak what you want to say and say it in the way you want to say it. This combines points two through six above.
#Speak what is your own and not that of someone else. This is a rewording of point seven.
#Speak in the language of the time in which you live. This refers again to the replacement of Classical Chinese with the vernacular language.
Sample work
:"Don't You Forget"
:
:Son,
:Over twenty years I taught you to love this country,
:But God tell me how!
:Don't you forget:
:It's our country's soldiers,
:That made your Aunt suicide in shame,
:And did the same to Ah Hsing,
:And to your wife,
:And shot to death!
:Don't you forget:
:Who cut off your finger,
:Who beat your father to a mess like this!
:Who burned this village?
:Shit! The fire is coming!
:Go, for your own sake! Don't die with me!
:Wait!
:Don't you forget:
:Your dying father only wished this country occupied,
:By the Cossacks,
:Or the Prussians,
:Anyone!
:Any life ever worse than -- this !?
:Original poem: ""
Zisi
Zisi , born Kong Ji , was a Chinese philosopher. Zisi, who was the only grandson of Confucius, supposedly taught Mencius and wrote the ''Doctrine of the Mean''. He is honorifically called Zisizi .
Where his grandfather began to distinguish between true and supposed knowledge, Zisi proceeded upon meditations on the relativity in human knowledge of the universe. He attempted to analyze as many types of action as possible, and believed that wise people, who are conscious of their moral and intellectual duties, can copy the reality of the universe into themselves.
Where his grandfather began to distinguish between true and supposed knowledge, Zisi proceeded upon meditations on the relativity in human knowledge of the universe. He attempted to analyze as many types of action as possible, and believed that wise people, who are conscious of their moral and intellectual duties, can copy the reality of the universe into themselves.
Zi Chan
Zi Chan , also know as Gongsun Qiao , was the most outstanding statesman of the in ancient China during the Spring and Autumn Period. Born in Zheng to an aristocratic family, Zi Chan was a statesman of Zheng from 544 BC until his death. Under Zi Chan, Zheng even managed to expand its territory, a difficult task for a small state surrounded by several large states. As a philosopher, Zi Chan separated the domains of heaven and the human world, arguing against superstition and believing that humans should be grounded in reality.
Zi Chan became the prime minister of Zheng and was responsible for many reforms that strengthened the state of Zheng. A , Zi Chan was heavily involved in all aspects of the state, reforming agricultural and commercial laws, setting the borders, centralizing the state, ensuring the hiring of capable ministers, and changing social norms. Zi Chan once prevented other ministers from executing a man for criticizing the government, arguing that it was in the best interests of the state to listen to the opinions of the common people.
Zi Chan reformed the government to emphasize the rule of law. In 543 BC, he had the state's code of law cast in bronze , a first among the states. He also enacted harsh punishments for criminals. Because of his focus on laws, historians often classify him as a .
Zi Chan was also highly skilled in state-to-state politics. When tried to interfere in Zheng's internal affairs after the death of a Zheng minister, Zi Chan was well aware of the danger, arguing that if Jin was allowed to determine the successor of the deceased minister in the state of Zheng, Zheng would then have lost its sovereignty to Jin. He then proceeded to convince Jin not to interfere in Zheng's internal politics.
Zi Chan became the prime minister of Zheng and was responsible for many reforms that strengthened the state of Zheng. A , Zi Chan was heavily involved in all aspects of the state, reforming agricultural and commercial laws, setting the borders, centralizing the state, ensuring the hiring of capable ministers, and changing social norms. Zi Chan once prevented other ministers from executing a man for criticizing the government, arguing that it was in the best interests of the state to listen to the opinions of the common people.
Zi Chan reformed the government to emphasize the rule of law. In 543 BC, he had the state's code of law cast in bronze , a first among the states. He also enacted harsh punishments for criminals. Because of his focus on laws, historians often classify him as a .
Zi Chan was also highly skilled in state-to-state politics. When tried to interfere in Zheng's internal affairs after the death of a Zheng minister, Zi Chan was well aware of the danger, arguing that if Jin was allowed to determine the successor of the deceased minister in the state of Zheng, Zheng would then have lost its sovereignty to Jin. He then proceeded to convince Jin not to interfere in Zheng's internal politics.
Zhu Xueqin
Zhu Xueqin is a Shanghai-based historian and public intellectual. He is a major exponent of contemporary Chinese liberalism.
Born in Shanghai, Zhu was, like so many others, shaped in his eventual outlook by China's Cultural Revolution, when he was sent to rural Lankao County, Henan as a "sent-down youth" in 1970. In 1972 he was transferred to factory work.
Taking an degree in history in 1985 from Shaanxi Normal University, from 1985 to 1991 he taught in the Air Force Politics Institute. In 1992 he graduated from Fudan University with a doctorate in history. From 1991 he has since been a Professor in the Department of History, Academy of Letters, Shanghai University.
An article entitled "1998: The Discourse of Liberalism," which spoke of a "resurfacing" of liberal thought, struck a particularly resonance, as it appeared in the widely circulated ''Nanfang Zhoumo'' .
Zhu Xueqin was among the those who found works of the brilliant but isolated and tragically persecuted social theorist Gu Zhun particularly inspiring when rediscovered in the mid 1990s.
He has participated in many public activities, such as campaigns, in support of human rights, freedom of speech, and political reform.
An interview with him entitled "For a Chinese Liberalism" is published in the book One China, Many Paths.
*''Daode lixiang guo de fumie'' Shanghai: Sanlian, 2004
*''Zhongguoyu ouzhou wenhua jiaoliu zhi''
*''Shuzhaili de geming''
Background
Born in Shanghai, Zhu was, like so many others, shaped in his eventual outlook by China's Cultural Revolution, when he was sent to rural Lankao County, Henan as a "sent-down youth" in 1970. In 1972 he was transferred to factory work.
Taking an degree in history in 1985 from Shaanxi Normal University, from 1985 to 1991 he taught in the Air Force Politics Institute. In 1992 he graduated from Fudan University with a doctorate in history. From 1991 he has since been a Professor in the Department of History, Academy of Letters, Shanghai University.
An article entitled "1998: The Discourse of Liberalism," which spoke of a "resurfacing" of liberal thought, struck a particularly resonance, as it appeared in the widely circulated ''Nanfang Zhoumo'' .
Zhu Xueqin was among the those who found works of the brilliant but isolated and tragically persecuted social theorist Gu Zhun particularly inspiring when rediscovered in the mid 1990s.
He has participated in many public activities, such as campaigns, in support of human rights, freedom of speech, and political reform.
An interview with him entitled "For a Chinese Liberalism" is published in the book One China, Many Paths.
Works
*''Daode lixiang guo de fumie'' Shanghai: Sanlian, 2004
*''Zhongguoyu ouzhou wenhua jiaoliu zhi''
*''Shuzhaili de geming''
Zhu Xi
Zhu Xi or Chu Hsi was a Song Dynasty scholar who became the leading figure of the School of Principle and the most influential rationalist in China. His contribution to Chinese philosophy included his assigning special significance to the ''Analects of Confucius,'' the ''Mencius,'' the ''Great Learning,'' and the ''Doctrine of the Mean'' , his emphasis on the investigation of things , and the synthesis of all fundamental Confucian concepts.
Zhu Xi, whose family originated in Wu-yuan County of Hui Prefecture , was born in Fujian, where his father worked as the subprefectural sheriff. After his father was forced from office due to his opposition to the government appeasement policy towards the Jurchen in 1140, Zhu Xi received instruction from his father at home. Upon his father's death in 1143, he studied with his father's friends Hu Xian, Liu Zihui, and Liu Mianzhi. In 1148, at the age of 19, Zhu Xi passed the Imperial Examination and became a presented scholar. Zhu Xi's first official dispatch position was as Subprefectural Registrar of Tong'an , which he served from 1153 - 1156. From 1153 he began to study under Li Tong, who followed the Neo-Confucian tradition of Cheng Hao and , and formally became his student in 1160. In 1179, after not serving in an official capacity since 1156, Zhu Xi was appointed Prefect of Nankang Military District , where he revived White Deer Hollow Academy . and got demoted 3 years later for attacking the incompetency of some officials. There were several instances of receiving an appointment and subsequently being demoted. Even though his teachings had been severely attacked by establishment figures, almost a thousand people attended his funeral. In 1241 his tablet was placed in the Confucian Temple.
During the Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi's teachings were considered to be . Rather than focusing on the ''Book of Changes'' like other Neo-Confucians, he chose to emphasize the Four Books: the ''Great Learning'', the ''Doctrine of the Mean'', the ''Analects of Confucius'', and the ''Mencius'' as the core curriculum for aspiring scholar officials. For all these classics he wrote extensive commentaries that were not widely recognized in his time; however, they later became accepted as their standard commentaries. The Four Books served as the basis of civil service examinations all the way down to 1905.
Zhu Xi maintained that all things are brought into being by the union two universal aspects of reality: ''qi'', sometimes translated as vital force; and ''li'', sometimes translated as rational principle . The source and sum of ''li'' is the ''Taiji'' , meaning the Great Ultimate. The source of ''qi'' is not so clearly stated by Zhu Xi, leading some authorities to maintain that he was a and others to maintain that he was a .
According to Zhu Xi's theory, every physical object and every person has its ''li'' and therefore has contact in its metaphysical core with the ''Taiji''. What is referred to as the human soul, mind, or spirit is understood as the ''Taiji'', or the supreme regulative principle, as it works its way out in a person.
''Qi'' and ''li'' operate together in mutual dependence. They are mutually aspective in all creatures in the universe. These two aspects are manifested in the creation of substantial entities. When their activity is waxing , that is the yang energy mode. When their activity is waning , that is the yin energy mode. The yang and yin phases constantly interact, each gaining and losing dominance over the other. In the process of the waxing and waning, the alternation of these fundamental vibrations, the so called five elements evolve.
In terms of ''li'' and ''qi'', Zhu Xi's system strongly resembles Buddhist ideas of li and shi , though Zhu Xi and his followers strongly argued that they were not copying Buddhist ideas. Instead, they held, they were using concepts already present long before in the ''Book of Changes.''
Zhu Xi discussed how he saw the Great Ultimate concept to be compatible with principle of Taoism, but his concept of ''Taiji'' was different from the understanding of ''Tao'' in Daoism. Where ''Taiji'' is a differentiating principle that results in the emergence of something new, Dao is still and silent, operating to reduce all things to equality and indistinguishability. He argued that there is a central harmony that is not static or empty but was dynamic, and that the Great Ultimate is itself in constant creative activity.
Zhu Xi considered the earlier Confucian Xun Zi to be a heretic for departing from Mencius' idea of innate human goodness. Even if people displayed immoral behaviour, the supreme regulative principle was good. The cause of immoral actions is qi. Zhu Xi's metaphysics is that everything contains ''li'' and ''qi''. Li is the principle that is in everything and governs the universe. Each person has a perfect ''li''. As such, individuals should act perfectly moral. However, while li is the underlying structure, ''qi'' is also part of everything. ''Qi'' obscures our perfect moral nature. The task of moral cultivation is to clear our qi. If our ''qi'' is clear and balanced, then we will act in a perfectly moral way.
According to Zhu Xi's epistemology, knowledge and action were indivisible components of truly intelligent activity. Although he did distinguish between the priority of knowing, since intelligent action requires forethought, and the importance of action, as it produces a discernible effect, Chu Hsi said "Knowledge and action always require each other. It is like a person who cannot walk without legs although he has eyes, and who cannot see without eyes although he has legs. With respect to order, knowledge comes first, and with respect to importance, action is more important."
Zhu Xi advocated ''gewu'', the investigation of the things. How to investigate and what these things are is the source of much debate. To Zhu Xi, the things are moral principles and the investigation involves paying attention to everything in both books and affairs because "moral principles are quite inexhaustible".
Zhu Xi did not hold to traditional ideas of God or Heaven , though he discussed how his own ideas mirrored the traditional concepts. He encouraged an agnostic tendency within Confucianism, because he believed that the Great Ultimate was a rational principle, and he discussed it as an intelligent and ordering will behind the universe. He did not promote the worship of spirits and offerings to images. Although he practiced some forms of ancestor worship, he disagreed that the souls of ancestors existed, believing instead that ancestor worship is a form of remembrance and gratitude.
Zhu Xi practiced a form of daily meditation similar to, but not the same as, Buddhist dhyana or ''chan ding'' . His meditation did not require the cessation of all thinking as in Buddhism; rather, it was characterised by quiet introspection that helped to balance various aspects of one's personality and allowed for focused thought and concentration.
His form of meditation was by nature Confucian in the sense that it was concerned with morality. His meditation attempted to reason and feel in harmony with the universe. He believed that this type of meditation brought humanity closer together and more into harmony.
Zhu Xi heavily focused his energy on teaching, claiming that learning is the only way to sagehood. He wished to make the pursuit of sagehood attainable to all men.
He lamented more modern printing techniques and the proliferation of books that ensued. This, he believed, made students less appreciative and focused on books, simply because there were more books to read than before. Therefore, he attempted to redefine how students should learn and read. In fact, disappointed by local schools in China, he established his own academy, White Deer Hollow Academy, to instruct students properly and in the proper fashion.
Zhu Xi wrote what was to became the orthodox Confucian interpretation of a number of concepts in Taoism and Buddhism. While he appeared to have adopted some ideas from these competing systems of thought, unlike previous Neo-Confucians he strictly abided by the Confucian doctrine of active moral cultivation. He found Buddhist principles to be darkening and deluding the original mind as well as destroying human relations.
From 1313 to 1905, Zhu Xi's commentaries on the Four Books formed the basis of civil service examinations in China. His teachings were to dominate Neo-Confucians such as Wang Fuzhi, though dissenters would later emerge such as Wang Yangming and the School of Mind two and a half centuries later.
His philosophy survived the Intellectual Revolution of 1917, and later Feng Youlan would interpret his conception of ''li'', ''qi'', and ''taiji'' into a new metaphysical theory.
He was also influential in Japan known as Shushigaku , and in Korea known as Jujahak , where it became an orthodoxy.
This renowned neo-Confucianist, educator and thinker from Southern Sung dynasty had, from an early age, followed his father and a number of great calligraphers at the time in practicing this art. At first he learned the style of Cao Cao, but later specialized in the regular script of Zhong Yao and the running cursive script of Yan Zhenqing. As he never ceased practicing, he reached a superb level in the art characterized by overpowering strength. Since then, though his manuscripts left to the world are piecemeal and incomplete, they have been regarded as invaluable for collection. While he bequeathed to posterity quite a bit of calligraphy which has been highly acclaimed in history, it is regrettable that most of is has been lost. Moreover, since the Yuan dynasty, his school of philosophy has been adopted as the official ideology of China. His philosophy not only profoundly affected traditional Chinese thinking and culture, but also spread outside China with tremendous influence. He has been hailed as one of the ten key philosophers of the Confucian School. His fame in the realm of philosophy was so great that even his brilliance in calligraphy was overshadowed. He was skillful in both running and cursive scripts, and more especially in large characters. His extant artworks consist mainly of short written notes in running script and rarely of large characters. His authentic manuscripts are collected by Nanjing Museum, Beijing Palace Museum, Liao Ning Province Museum, China; Taipei Palace Museum and the National Museum of Tokyo, Japan. Some pieces are in private collections in China and overseas. The 《Thatched Hut Hand Scroll》, one of Zhu Xi's masterpieces in running-cursive script, is in an overseas private collection.
《Thatched Hut Hand Scroll》 contains three separate parts:
1) Title
2) 102 characters by Zhu Xi in running cursive scripts
3) The postscripts by Wen Tianxiang of Sung dynasty, Fang Xiaoru , Zhu Yunming , Tang Yin and Hai Rui of the Ming dynasty.
The calligraphy of Zhu Xi had been acclaimed as acquiring the style of the Han and Wei dynasties . He was Skillful in the central tip, and his brush strokes are smooth and round, steady yet flowing in the movements without any trace of frivolity and abruptness . Indeed, his calligraphy possesses stability and elegance in construction with a continuous flow of energy. Without trying to be pretentious or intentional, his written characters are well-balanced, natural and unconventional. As he was a patriarch of Confucianism philosophy, it is understandable that his learning permeated in all his writings with due respect for traditional standards. He maintained that while rules had to be observed for each word, there should be room for tolerance, multiplicity and naturalness. In other words, calligraphy had to observe rules and at the same time not bound by them so as to express the quality of naturalness. Its small wonder that his calligraphy had been highly esteemed throughout the centuries, by great personages as follows:
Tao Chung Yi of Ming dynasty:
Whilst Master Zhu inherited the orthodox teaching and propagated it to the realm of sages and yet he was also proficient in running and cursive scripts, especially in large characters. His execution of brush was well-poised and elegant. However piecemeal or isolated his manuscripts, they were eagerly sought after and treasured.
Wang Sai Ching of Ming dynasty:
The brush strokes in his calligraphy were swift without attempting at formality, yet none of his strokes and dots were not in conformity with the rules of calligraphy.
Wen Tianxiang of Sung dynasty in his postscript for the 《Thatched Hut Hand Scroll》 by Zhu Xi:
People in the olden days said that there was embedded the bones of loyal subject in the calligraphy of Yan Zhenqing. Observing the execution of brush strokes by Zhu Xi, I am indeed convinced of the truth of this opinion.
Zhu Yunming of Ming dynasty in his postscript for the 《Thatched Hut Hand Scroll》 by Zhu Xi:
Master Zhu was loyal, learned and a great scholar through out ages . He was superb in calligraphy although he did not write much in his lifetime and hence they were rarely seen in later ages. This roll had been collected by Wong Sze Ma for a long time and of late, it appeared in the world. I chanced to see it once and whilst I regretted that I did not try to study it extensively until now, in the study room of my friend, I was so lucky to see it again. This showed that I am destined to see the manuscripts of master Zhu. I therefore wrote this preface for my intention.
Hai Rui of Ming dynasty in n his postscript for the 《Thatched Hut Hand Scroll》 by Zhu Xi:
The writings are enticing, delicate, elegant and outstanding. Truly such calligraphy piece is the wonder of nature.
*'''' magazine ranked Zhu Xi as the forty-fifth most important person in the last millennium.
*Chan, Wing-tsit . ''A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963.
*Zhu Xi "Learning To Be a Sage: Selections From the Conversations of Master Chu, Arrainged Topically". Berkeley, University of California Press, 1990.
*J. Percy Bruce. ''Chu Hsi and His Masters'', Probsthain & Co., London, 1922.
*Daniel K. Gardner. ''Learning To Be a sage'', University of California Press, Berkeley, 1990.
*Bruce E. Carpenter. 'Chu Hsi and the Art of Reading' in ''Tezukayama University Review'' , Nara, Japan, no. 15, 1977, pp. 13-18. ISSN 0385-7743
*Wing-tsit Chan, ''Chu Hsi: Life and Thought''
*Wing-tsit Chan, ''Chu Hsi: New Studies''
*Hoyt Cleveland Tillman, ''Utilitarian Confucianism: Ch‘en Liang's Challenge to Chu Hsi''
*Wm. Theodore de Bary, ''Neo-Confucian Orthodoxy and the Learning of the Mind-and-Heart'' , on the development of Zhu Xi's thought after his death
*Wing-tsit Chan , ''Chu Hsi and Neo-Confucianism'' , a set of conference papers
*Donald J. Munro, ''Images of Human Nature: A Sung Portrait'' , an analysis of the concept of human nature in Zhu Xi's thought
*Chan, Wing-tsit. ''Reflections On Things at Hand'', New York, 1967.
Life
Zhu Xi, whose family originated in Wu-yuan County of Hui Prefecture , was born in Fujian, where his father worked as the subprefectural sheriff. After his father was forced from office due to his opposition to the government appeasement policy towards the Jurchen in 1140, Zhu Xi received instruction from his father at home. Upon his father's death in 1143, he studied with his father's friends Hu Xian, Liu Zihui, and Liu Mianzhi. In 1148, at the age of 19, Zhu Xi passed the Imperial Examination and became a presented scholar. Zhu Xi's first official dispatch position was as Subprefectural Registrar of Tong'an , which he served from 1153 - 1156. From 1153 he began to study under Li Tong, who followed the Neo-Confucian tradition of Cheng Hao and , and formally became his student in 1160. In 1179, after not serving in an official capacity since 1156, Zhu Xi was appointed Prefect of Nankang Military District , where he revived White Deer Hollow Academy . and got demoted 3 years later for attacking the incompetency of some officials. There were several instances of receiving an appointment and subsequently being demoted. Even though his teachings had been severely attacked by establishment figures, almost a thousand people attended his funeral. In 1241 his tablet was placed in the Confucian Temple.
Teachings
The Four Books
During the Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi's teachings were considered to be . Rather than focusing on the ''Book of Changes'' like other Neo-Confucians, he chose to emphasize the Four Books: the ''Great Learning'', the ''Doctrine of the Mean'', the ''Analects of Confucius'', and the ''Mencius'' as the core curriculum for aspiring scholar officials. For all these classics he wrote extensive commentaries that were not widely recognized in his time; however, they later became accepted as their standard commentaries. The Four Books served as the basis of civil service examinations all the way down to 1905.
Vital force , principle , and the Great Ultimate
Zhu Xi maintained that all things are brought into being by the union two universal aspects of reality: ''qi'', sometimes translated as vital force; and ''li'', sometimes translated as rational principle . The source and sum of ''li'' is the ''Taiji'' , meaning the Great Ultimate. The source of ''qi'' is not so clearly stated by Zhu Xi, leading some authorities to maintain that he was a and others to maintain that he was a .
According to Zhu Xi's theory, every physical object and every person has its ''li'' and therefore has contact in its metaphysical core with the ''Taiji''. What is referred to as the human soul, mind, or spirit is understood as the ''Taiji'', or the supreme regulative principle, as it works its way out in a person.
''Qi'' and ''li'' operate together in mutual dependence. They are mutually aspective in all creatures in the universe. These two aspects are manifested in the creation of substantial entities. When their activity is waxing , that is the yang energy mode. When their activity is waning , that is the yin energy mode. The yang and yin phases constantly interact, each gaining and losing dominance over the other. In the process of the waxing and waning, the alternation of these fundamental vibrations, the so called five elements evolve.
In terms of ''li'' and ''qi'', Zhu Xi's system strongly resembles Buddhist ideas of li and shi , though Zhu Xi and his followers strongly argued that they were not copying Buddhist ideas. Instead, they held, they were using concepts already present long before in the ''Book of Changes.''
Zhu Xi discussed how he saw the Great Ultimate concept to be compatible with principle of Taoism, but his concept of ''Taiji'' was different from the understanding of ''Tao'' in Daoism. Where ''Taiji'' is a differentiating principle that results in the emergence of something new, Dao is still and silent, operating to reduce all things to equality and indistinguishability. He argued that there is a central harmony that is not static or empty but was dynamic, and that the Great Ultimate is itself in constant creative activity.
Human nature
Zhu Xi considered the earlier Confucian Xun Zi to be a heretic for departing from Mencius' idea of innate human goodness. Even if people displayed immoral behaviour, the supreme regulative principle was good. The cause of immoral actions is qi. Zhu Xi's metaphysics is that everything contains ''li'' and ''qi''. Li is the principle that is in everything and governs the universe. Each person has a perfect ''li''. As such, individuals should act perfectly moral. However, while li is the underlying structure, ''qi'' is also part of everything. ''Qi'' obscures our perfect moral nature. The task of moral cultivation is to clear our qi. If our ''qi'' is clear and balanced, then we will act in a perfectly moral way.
Heart/Mind
Knowledge and action
According to Zhu Xi's epistemology, knowledge and action were indivisible components of truly intelligent activity. Although he did distinguish between the priority of knowing, since intelligent action requires forethought, and the importance of action, as it produces a discernible effect, Chu Hsi said "Knowledge and action always require each other. It is like a person who cannot walk without legs although he has eyes, and who cannot see without eyes although he has legs. With respect to order, knowledge comes first, and with respect to importance, action is more important."
The investigation of things and the extension of knowledge
Zhu Xi advocated ''gewu'', the investigation of the things. How to investigate and what these things are is the source of much debate. To Zhu Xi, the things are moral principles and the investigation involves paying attention to everything in both books and affairs because "moral principles are quite inexhaustible".
Religion
Zhu Xi did not hold to traditional ideas of God or Heaven , though he discussed how his own ideas mirrored the traditional concepts. He encouraged an agnostic tendency within Confucianism, because he believed that the Great Ultimate was a rational principle, and he discussed it as an intelligent and ordering will behind the universe. He did not promote the worship of spirits and offerings to images. Although he practiced some forms of ancestor worship, he disagreed that the souls of ancestors existed, believing instead that ancestor worship is a form of remembrance and gratitude.
Meditation
Zhu Xi practiced a form of daily meditation similar to, but not the same as, Buddhist dhyana or ''chan ding'' . His meditation did not require the cessation of all thinking as in Buddhism; rather, it was characterised by quiet introspection that helped to balance various aspects of one's personality and allowed for focused thought and concentration.
His form of meditation was by nature Confucian in the sense that it was concerned with morality. His meditation attempted to reason and feel in harmony with the universe. He believed that this type of meditation brought humanity closer together and more into harmony.
On teaching, learning, and the creation of an academy
Zhu Xi heavily focused his energy on teaching, claiming that learning is the only way to sagehood. He wished to make the pursuit of sagehood attainable to all men.
He lamented more modern printing techniques and the proliferation of books that ensued. This, he believed, made students less appreciative and focused on books, simply because there were more books to read than before. Therefore, he attempted to redefine how students should learn and read. In fact, disappointed by local schools in China, he established his own academy, White Deer Hollow Academy, to instruct students properly and in the proper fashion.
Taoist and Buddhist influence on Zhu Xi
Zhu Xi wrote what was to became the orthodox Confucian interpretation of a number of concepts in Taoism and Buddhism. While he appeared to have adopted some ideas from these competing systems of thought, unlike previous Neo-Confucians he strictly abided by the Confucian doctrine of active moral cultivation. He found Buddhist principles to be darkening and deluding the original mind as well as destroying human relations.
Zhu Xi's influence
From 1313 to 1905, Zhu Xi's commentaries on the Four Books formed the basis of civil service examinations in China. His teachings were to dominate Neo-Confucians such as Wang Fuzhi, though dissenters would later emerge such as Wang Yangming and the School of Mind two and a half centuries later.
His philosophy survived the Intellectual Revolution of 1917, and later Feng Youlan would interpret his conception of ''li'', ''qi'', and ''taiji'' into a new metaphysical theory.
He was also influential in Japan known as Shushigaku , and in Korea known as Jujahak , where it became an orthodoxy.
Achievements of Zhu Xi in the art of calligraphy
This renowned neo-Confucianist, educator and thinker from Southern Sung dynasty had, from an early age, followed his father and a number of great calligraphers at the time in practicing this art. At first he learned the style of Cao Cao, but later specialized in the regular script of Zhong Yao and the running cursive script of Yan Zhenqing. As he never ceased practicing, he reached a superb level in the art characterized by overpowering strength. Since then, though his manuscripts left to the world are piecemeal and incomplete, they have been regarded as invaluable for collection. While he bequeathed to posterity quite a bit of calligraphy which has been highly acclaimed in history, it is regrettable that most of is has been lost. Moreover, since the Yuan dynasty, his school of philosophy has been adopted as the official ideology of China. His philosophy not only profoundly affected traditional Chinese thinking and culture, but also spread outside China with tremendous influence. He has been hailed as one of the ten key philosophers of the Confucian School. His fame in the realm of philosophy was so great that even his brilliance in calligraphy was overshadowed. He was skillful in both running and cursive scripts, and more especially in large characters. His extant artworks consist mainly of short written notes in running script and rarely of large characters. His authentic manuscripts are collected by Nanjing Museum, Beijing Palace Museum, Liao Ning Province Museum, China; Taipei Palace Museum and the National Museum of Tokyo, Japan. Some pieces are in private collections in China and overseas. The 《Thatched Hut Hand Scroll》, one of Zhu Xi's masterpieces in running-cursive script, is in an overseas private collection.
《Thatched Hut Hand Scroll》 contains three separate parts:
1) Title
2) 102 characters by Zhu Xi in running cursive scripts
3) The postscripts by Wen Tianxiang of Sung dynasty, Fang Xiaoru , Zhu Yunming , Tang Yin and Hai Rui of the Ming dynasty.
Calligraphy Style
The calligraphy of Zhu Xi had been acclaimed as acquiring the style of the Han and Wei dynasties . He was Skillful in the central tip, and his brush strokes are smooth and round, steady yet flowing in the movements without any trace of frivolity and abruptness . Indeed, his calligraphy possesses stability and elegance in construction with a continuous flow of energy. Without trying to be pretentious or intentional, his written characters are well-balanced, natural and unconventional. As he was a patriarch of Confucianism philosophy, it is understandable that his learning permeated in all his writings with due respect for traditional standards. He maintained that while rules had to be observed for each word, there should be room for tolerance, multiplicity and naturalness. In other words, calligraphy had to observe rules and at the same time not bound by them so as to express the quality of naturalness. Its small wonder that his calligraphy had been highly esteemed throughout the centuries, by great personages as follows:
Tao Chung Yi of Ming dynasty:
Whilst Master Zhu inherited the orthodox teaching and propagated it to the realm of sages and yet he was also proficient in running and cursive scripts, especially in large characters. His execution of brush was well-poised and elegant. However piecemeal or isolated his manuscripts, they were eagerly sought after and treasured.
Wang Sai Ching of Ming dynasty:
The brush strokes in his calligraphy were swift without attempting at formality, yet none of his strokes and dots were not in conformity with the rules of calligraphy.
Wen Tianxiang of Sung dynasty in his postscript for the 《Thatched Hut Hand Scroll》 by Zhu Xi:
People in the olden days said that there was embedded the bones of loyal subject in the calligraphy of Yan Zhenqing. Observing the execution of brush strokes by Zhu Xi, I am indeed convinced of the truth of this opinion.
Zhu Yunming of Ming dynasty in his postscript for the 《Thatched Hut Hand Scroll》 by Zhu Xi:
Master Zhu was loyal, learned and a great scholar through out ages . He was superb in calligraphy although he did not write much in his lifetime and hence they were rarely seen in later ages. This roll had been collected by Wong Sze Ma for a long time and of late, it appeared in the world. I chanced to see it once and whilst I regretted that I did not try to study it extensively until now, in the study room of my friend, I was so lucky to see it again. This showed that I am destined to see the manuscripts of master Zhu. I therefore wrote this preface for my intention.
Hai Rui of Ming dynasty in n his postscript for the 《Thatched Hut Hand Scroll》 by Zhu Xi:
The writings are enticing, delicate, elegant and outstanding. Truly such calligraphy piece is the wonder of nature.
Trivia
*'''' magazine ranked Zhu Xi as the forty-fifth most important person in the last millennium.
Footnotes and references
*Chan, Wing-tsit . ''A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963.
*Zhu Xi "Learning To Be a Sage: Selections From the Conversations of Master Chu, Arrainged Topically". Berkeley, University of California Press, 1990.
Further reading
*J. Percy Bruce. ''Chu Hsi and His Masters'', Probsthain & Co., London, 1922.
*Daniel K. Gardner. ''Learning To Be a sage'', University of California Press, Berkeley, 1990.
*Bruce E. Carpenter. 'Chu Hsi and the Art of Reading' in ''Tezukayama University Review'' , Nara, Japan, no. 15, 1977, pp. 13-18. ISSN 0385-7743
*Wing-tsit Chan, ''Chu Hsi: Life and Thought''
*Wing-tsit Chan, ''Chu Hsi: New Studies''
*Hoyt Cleveland Tillman, ''Utilitarian Confucianism: Ch‘en Liang's Challenge to Chu Hsi''
*Wm. Theodore de Bary, ''Neo-Confucian Orthodoxy and the Learning of the Mind-and-Heart'' , on the development of Zhu Xi's thought after his death
*Wing-tsit Chan , ''Chu Hsi and Neo-Confucianism'' , a set of conference papers
*Donald J. Munro, ''Images of Human Nature: A Sung Portrait'' , an analysis of the concept of human nature in Zhu Xi's thought
Translations
*Chan, Wing-tsit. ''Reflections On Things at Hand'', New York, 1967.
Zhou Dunyi
Zhou Dunyi , born Zhou Dunshi , courtesy name Maoshu , was a Neo-Confucian philosopher and cosmologist born in present-day during the Song Dynasty. He conceptualized the Neo-Confucian cosmology of the day, explaining the relationship between human conduct and universal forces. In this way, he emphasizes that humans can master their ''qi'' in order to accord with nature.
*''Taiji Tushuo''
*''Tong Shu''
Writings
*''Taiji Tushuo''
*''Tong Shu''
Zheng Xuan
Zheng Xuan , courtesy name Kangcheng , was an influential commentator and Confucian scholar of the Han Dynasty. He was born in modern , and a student of Ma Rong.
Zhang Dongsun
Zhang Dongsun , was a philosopher, public intellectual and political figure.
Travelling to Japan as an overseas student in his youth, Zhang studied the epistemology and ethics of Immanuel Kant, and attempted to reinterpret Confucianism along Kantian lines. He took part in famous debates about the relative merits of "science and metaphysics," allying himself with the then fashionable metaphysics of Henri Bergson. He was equally well-known, however, as an exponent of the philosophy of Bertrand Russell, whom he accompanied on a tour of China in 1920.
A prominent exponent of Chinese liberalism, he became a powerful influence in the China Democratic League in its original incarnation as a non-Communist "third force" grouping opposed to the dictatorship of the Guomindang under Jiang Jieshi .
Zhang veered towards acceptance of the inevitability of Communist victory and took government positions after the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949. However his earlier passionate devotion to intellectual freedom and searching critiques of Marxism made him an object of suspicion, obliging him to live in obscurity and in constant fear of persecution.
Biography
Travelling to Japan as an overseas student in his youth, Zhang studied the epistemology and ethics of Immanuel Kant, and attempted to reinterpret Confucianism along Kantian lines. He took part in famous debates about the relative merits of "science and metaphysics," allying himself with the then fashionable metaphysics of Henri Bergson. He was equally well-known, however, as an exponent of the philosophy of Bertrand Russell, whom he accompanied on a tour of China in 1920.
A prominent exponent of Chinese liberalism, he became a powerful influence in the China Democratic League in its original incarnation as a non-Communist "third force" grouping opposed to the dictatorship of the Guomindang under Jiang Jieshi .
Zhang veered towards acceptance of the inevitability of Communist victory and took government positions after the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949. However his earlier passionate devotion to intellectual freedom and searching critiques of Marxism made him an object of suspicion, obliging him to live in obscurity and in constant fear of persecution.
Zhan Ruoshui
Zhan Ruoshui , was a Chinese philosopher, educator, and a Confucian scholar.
Zhan was born in . He was appointed the president of Nanjing Taixue in 1524. He was later appointed the Minister of Department of Li , Minister of Governmental Personnel , and then Minister of Military Affairs for War at Nanjing of Ming Dynasty.
As a scholar, Zhan is famous for mind theory. He was also a famous educator. In his life he founded and jointly founded more than 40 Shuyuan .
Zhan was a lifelong friend of the philosopher, general, and administrator Wang Yangming. He shared an appreciation of Lu Xiangshan idealism , Daoism, and Buddhism with Wang, although their intellectual paths ultimately diverged.
Zhan was born in . He was appointed the president of Nanjing Taixue in 1524. He was later appointed the Minister of Department of Li , Minister of Governmental Personnel , and then Minister of Military Affairs for War at Nanjing of Ming Dynasty.
As a scholar, Zhan is famous for mind theory. He was also a famous educator. In his life he founded and jointly founded more than 40 Shuyuan .
Zhan was a lifelong friend of the philosopher, general, and administrator Wang Yangming. He shared an appreciation of Lu Xiangshan idealism , Daoism, and Buddhism with Wang, although their intellectual paths ultimately diverged.
Zengzi
Zengzi , born Zeng Shen , courtesy name Ziyu , was a Chinese philosopher and of Confucius.
He is credited with authorship of a large portion of the ''Great Learning'', including its foreword. Zengzi's disciples are believed to have been among the most important compilers of the ''Analects of Confucius'' and other Confucian classics. Zengzi was also an early Chinese proponent of a round earth theory, as opposed to a flat earth model .
He is credited with authorship of a large portion of the ''Great Learning'', including its foreword. Zengzi's disciples are believed to have been among the most important compilers of the ''Analects of Confucius'' and other Confucian classics. Zengzi was also an early Chinese proponent of a round earth theory, as opposed to a flat earth model .
Yen Yuan
Yen Yuan founded a practical school of Confucianism to contrast with the more ethereal Neo-Confucianism that had been popular in China for the previous six centuries.
He was born on April 27, 1635 in the Chihli province in China and spent his youth in poverty, after his father was taken into the Manchu army and never returned.
He died on September 30, 1704 in the same province.
He was born on April 27, 1635 in the Chihli province in China and spent his youth in poverty, after his father was taken into the Manchu army and never returned.
He died on September 30, 1704 in the same province.
Ye Shi
Ye Shi , courtesy name Zhengze , pseudonym Mr. Shuixin , was a Chinese neo-Confucian of the Song dynasty.
A native of , he was the most famous figure of the Yongjia School, a neo-Confucianism School composed mostly of philosophers from in Zhejiang province. In contrast to other neo-Confucianists in the same period like Zhu Xi and Lu Jiuyuan, he stressed practical learning and applying Confucian doctrine to real world problems. This school had important influence on later thinkers from Zhejiang province, including Wang Shouren and Huang Zongxi, who were the most important philosophers in the Ming and Qing periods.
A native of , he was the most famous figure of the Yongjia School, a neo-Confucianism School composed mostly of philosophers from in Zhejiang province. In contrast to other neo-Confucianists in the same period like Zhu Xi and Lu Jiuyuan, he stressed practical learning and applying Confucian doctrine to real world problems. This school had important influence on later thinkers from Zhejiang province, including Wang Shouren and Huang Zongxi, who were the most important philosophers in the Ming and Qing periods.
Yang Zhu
Yang Zhu , was a Chinese philosopher during the Warring States period. An early Hedonist, Epicurean, or Sophist alternative to Confucian thought, Yang Zhu's surviving ideas appear primarily in chapter seven of the Liezi .
The philosophies attributed to Yang Zhu, as presented in Liezi, clash with the primarily Daoist influence of the rest of the work. Of particular note is his recognition of self-preservation , which has led him to be credited with "the discovery of the body". In comparison with other Chinese philosophical giants, Yang Zhu has recently faded into relative obscurity, but his influence in his own time was so widespread that Mencius described his philosophies along with the antithetical ideas of Mozi as "floods and wild animals that ravage the land" .
According to Mencius, “Yang’s principle is, ‘Each for himself’ — which does not acknowledge the claims of the sovereign. Mo’s principle is, ‘To love all equally’ — which does not acknowledge the peculiar affection due to a father. To acknowledge neither king nor father is to be in the state of the beast. If their principles are not stopped, and the principles of Confucius set forth, their perverse speaking will delude the people, and stop up the path of benevolence and righteousness” .
Mencius criticized Yang Zhu as one “who would not pluck a hair from his body to benefit the world.” However, Yang Zhu emphasized that self-impairment, symbolized by the plucking of one’s hair, would in no way lead to others’ benefit. Although he would not toil for others, he would not harm them for personal gain or advantage, which should be avoided as external to one’s nature .
Yang Zhu taught, “If everyone does not harm a single hair, and if everyone does not benefit the world, the world will be well governed of itself.” In other words, everyone should mind their own business, neither giving nor taking from others, and be content with what he has, and in that way one will be happy and also contribute to the welfare of the world .
Although his detractors present him as an hedonist, epicurean, and egoist, Yang Zhu was, according to contemporary sources, an early Daoist teacher identified with a new philosophical trend toward naturalism as the best means of preserving life in a decadent and turbulent world .
All beings, thought Yang Zhu, have the survival instinct, but man, the highest of creatures, lacking the strength of animals, must rely on intelligence to survive rather than strength. He felt that strength was despicable when used against others .
Yang Zhu directed his thought to attainment of the spiritual self through self-expression and finding contentment. Man craves the pleasures of the world and gratification of desire through such things as fine food and beautiful objects; to yield to these cravings for self-gratification is to seek the original spiritual nature .
Yang Zhu agreed with the search for happiness, but he felt one should not strive for life beyond one’s allotted span, nor should one unnecessarily shorten one’s life. Death is as natural as life, Yang Zhu felt, and therefore should be viewed with neither fear nor awe. Funeral ceremonies are of no worth to the deceased. “Dead people are not concerned whether their bodies are buried in coffins, cremated, dumped in water or in a ditch; nor whether the body is dressed in fine clothes. What matters most is that before death strikes one lives life to the fullest” .
"Life is full of suffering, and its chief purpose is pleasure. There is no god and no after-life; men are the helpless puppets of the blind natural forces that made them, and that gave them their unchosen ancestry and their inalienable character. The wise man will accept this fate without complaint, but will not be fooled by all the nonsense of Confucius and Mozi about inherent virtue, universal love, and a good name: morality is a deception practised upon the simple by the clever; universal love is the delusion of children, who do not know the universal enmity that forms the law of life; and a good name is a posthumous bauble which the fools who paid so dearly for it cannot enjoy. In life the good suffer like the bad, and the wicked seem to enjoy themselves more keenly than the good” .
The philosophies attributed to Yang Zhu, as presented in Liezi, clash with the primarily Daoist influence of the rest of the work. Of particular note is his recognition of self-preservation , which has led him to be credited with "the discovery of the body". In comparison with other Chinese philosophical giants, Yang Zhu has recently faded into relative obscurity, but his influence in his own time was so widespread that Mencius described his philosophies along with the antithetical ideas of Mozi as "floods and wild animals that ravage the land" .
Mencius's view of Yang Zhu
According to Mencius, “Yang’s principle is, ‘Each for himself’ — which does not acknowledge the claims of the sovereign. Mo’s principle is, ‘To love all equally’ — which does not acknowledge the peculiar affection due to a father. To acknowledge neither king nor father is to be in the state of the beast. If their principles are not stopped, and the principles of Confucius set forth, their perverse speaking will delude the people, and stop up the path of benevolence and righteousness” .
Mencius criticized Yang Zhu as one “who would not pluck a hair from his body to benefit the world.” However, Yang Zhu emphasized that self-impairment, symbolized by the plucking of one’s hair, would in no way lead to others’ benefit. Although he would not toil for others, he would not harm them for personal gain or advantage, which should be avoided as external to one’s nature .
Yang Zhu taught, “If everyone does not harm a single hair, and if everyone does not benefit the world, the world will be well governed of itself.” In other words, everyone should mind their own business, neither giving nor taking from others, and be content with what he has, and in that way one will be happy and also contribute to the welfare of the world .
Nature
Although his detractors present him as an hedonist, epicurean, and egoist, Yang Zhu was, according to contemporary sources, an early Daoist teacher identified with a new philosophical trend toward naturalism as the best means of preserving life in a decadent and turbulent world .
All beings, thought Yang Zhu, have the survival instinct, but man, the highest of creatures, lacking the strength of animals, must rely on intelligence to survive rather than strength. He felt that strength was despicable when used against others .
Life
Yang Zhu directed his thought to attainment of the spiritual self through self-expression and finding contentment. Man craves the pleasures of the world and gratification of desire through such things as fine food and beautiful objects; to yield to these cravings for self-gratification is to seek the original spiritual nature .
Death
Yang Zhu agreed with the search for happiness, but he felt one should not strive for life beyond one’s allotted span, nor should one unnecessarily shorten one’s life. Death is as natural as life, Yang Zhu felt, and therefore should be viewed with neither fear nor awe. Funeral ceremonies are of no worth to the deceased. “Dead people are not concerned whether their bodies are buried in coffins, cremated, dumped in water or in a ditch; nor whether the body is dressed in fine clothes. What matters most is that before death strikes one lives life to the fullest” .
Summary
"Life is full of suffering, and its chief purpose is pleasure. There is no god and no after-life; men are the helpless puppets of the blind natural forces that made them, and that gave them their unchosen ancestry and their inalienable character. The wise man will accept this fate without complaint, but will not be fooled by all the nonsense of Confucius and Mozi about inherent virtue, universal love, and a good name: morality is a deception practised upon the simple by the clever; universal love is the delusion of children, who do not know the universal enmity that forms the law of life; and a good name is a posthumous bauble which the fools who paid so dearly for it cannot enjoy. In life the good suffer like the bad, and the wicked seem to enjoy themselves more keenly than the good” .
Yang Rongguo
Yang Rongguo was a academic and philosopher who was involved in the Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius campaign of the Cultural Revolution.
Yang initially began his study of Confucius with a publication in 1947 which was revised and published again in 1973. During the Cultural Revolution he was a professor at Zhongshan University. He published an article on July 7, 1973 in ''People's Daily'' entitled "Confucius-A Thinker Who Stubbornly Upheld the Slave System." This article, coupled with his republication of work, brought him into significance. He began publicly connecting Lin Biao, the fallen Chinese leader now condemned as a rightist, with Confucius, who had long been campaigned against. Yang connected not only Lin, but also generalized Liu Shaoqi and other ousted leaders as Confucian followers. Confucius was a more significant target than before, however, and was a stand-in for Premier Zhou Enlai, who was not criticized by name. Among Yang Rongguo's points was that Confucius had suppressed societal changes in his era, and that Zhou Enlai had been doing similar things by working towards the rehabilitation of ousted CCP leaders in 1972, including Deng Xiaoping..
Yang initially began his study of Confucius with a publication in 1947 which was revised and published again in 1973. During the Cultural Revolution he was a professor at Zhongshan University. He published an article on July 7, 1973 in ''People's Daily'' entitled "Confucius-A Thinker Who Stubbornly Upheld the Slave System." This article, coupled with his republication of work, brought him into significance. He began publicly connecting Lin Biao, the fallen Chinese leader now condemned as a rightist, with Confucius, who had long been campaigned against. Yang connected not only Lin, but also generalized Liu Shaoqi and other ousted leaders as Confucian followers. Confucius was a more significant target than before, however, and was a stand-in for Premier Zhou Enlai, who was not criticized by name. Among Yang Rongguo's points was that Confucius had suppressed societal changes in his era, and that Zhou Enlai had been doing similar things by working towards the rehabilitation of ousted CCP leaders in 1972, including Deng Xiaoping..
Xun Zi
Xun Zi was a Confucian philosopher who lived during the Warring States Period and contributed to one of the Hundred Schools of Thought. Xún Zǐ believed man's inborn tendencies need to be curbed through education and ritual, counter to Mencius's view that man is innately good. He believed that ethical norms had been invented to rectify mankind.
Educated in the state of Qi, Xun Zi was associated with the school, but
his philosophy has a more pragmatic flavour compared to Confucian optimism.
Some scholars attribute it to the divisive times.
Unlike the aphoristic style of the Analects and Mencius, Xun Zi was a more rigorous thinker and wrote elaborately argued essays, which were collected into the book called ''Xunzi'' . He distinguishes what is born in man and what must be learned through rigorous education.
* "Discussion of heaven " rejects the Mencian notion that heaven has a moral will. Instead, Xun Zi asserts that heaven is simply the natural world; thus people should focus on the human, social realm, rather than dealing with heavenly ideas.
*"Discussion of Ritual Propriety ," discusses rules of individual and social conduct .
*"Dispelling Obsessions," being too focused on only one aspect of a situation, one often loses sight of the larger purpose.
* "Proper Use of Terms" : A name becomes proper for a situation through conventional usage, but once this is fixed, it is improper to deviate from these norms. Thus he adopts a conventional view for the origin of the sound-to-meaning mapping, although the objects signified by the term remain .
:*The term Zhengming often appears in the English literature as "The Rectification of Names". This is a misleading transmission of the Chinese meaning; because, in Chinese, the term is equivocal. Due to the nature of the Chinese language, Chinese compound words can function equally well as nouns ''or'' verbs . And, moroever, given that the constituent morphemes Zheng and Ming have a citation meaning of "correct" and "name" respectively, the ''Zheng'' aspect of the compound "Zheng-Ming" can either be functioning as a "''stative verb''" , or as a "''causative verb''" ; as follows:
::* Providing the implication that the name that is used to label the actual state of affairs of the world has been ''adjusted'' so that a name/label has now been changed so that it now matches that state of affairs ; or
::* Provide the implication that the prevailing state of affairs of the world has been so ''adjusted'' that it has been "corrected" or "rectified" such that it now matches the citation meaning of the designated name/label .
* "Human Dispositions are Detestable" : Rejects Mencius' claim that people have a natural inclination toward goodness. Confucius, who simply said that people are similar by nature, was not clear on the matter. Xun Zi holds that man is naturally inclined towards selfishness and evil, and that if these inclinations are not curbed, human societies would devolve into . He views morality as a social construct, emphasizing the difference between .
This last view engendered considerable debate over two centuries.
His disciples Li Si and the state royal Han Feizi developed the quasi-authoritarian aspects of his thought into the doctrine called the School of Law, or .
While Xun Zi was influential during times, his influence waned compared to Mencius during the Tang dynasty.
Xunzi's chapter on dispelling obsession can be understood via the use of an ode he uses from the Book of Odes:
I pick and pick the burr-weed
But it does not fill my slanting basket.
I sigh for my loved one;
I would be in the ranks of Zhou.
Because the mind of the picker in this ode is divided between her task at hand and the love she has for a man in the ranks of Zhou, she cannot complete the simple task of filling her basket. Xunzi warns against falling into obsession in this chapter. When one is subject to obsession, it means that they are focusing so intently on a certain thing their minds will not be able to absorb any new information outside of the realm of their obsession. Their minds are thus divided in the sense of their being a wall too tall to see over in their head separating the obsession from everything else. Obsession, as argued by Xunzi, is so strong that the ineptitude it causes can lead to one's death without them even knowing it. Examples of people who fell into such obsessions include rulers who neglected their duties at the hands of an obsession and thus fell into discord with their people, and usurpers of the throne who also met their end because of their obsession with gaining power.
Alternately, a sage uses the Way to refrain from obsession and to keep his mind open. In order to accept the Way, one must first understand it, then approve it, then abide by it. The Way is the path away from obsession because of the nature of its interaction with the mind, which is empty, unified and still, according to Xunzi, when it is in accord with the Way. When it happens that one's mind is empty, one is able to possess much intellect without said intellect interfering with the process of absorbing new information. When it happens that one's mind is unified, one understands differences and the variety of information, but does not allow "one fact to impinge upon that of another." When it happens that one's mind is still, although one may daydream and imagine and have a mind constantly in motion, one does not allow these mental meanderings to distort perceptions. It is important to note that Xunzi is referring to a peace of mind rather than an attempt to unlearn what one has learned, as Laozi does, when he refers to the mind as being empty, unified and still. When one is in accordance with the Way they are able to treat the world holistically, while one outside of the Way can only see the world as a collection of unrelated units. With this achieved, learning can be done, and should be done to the point of sufficiency .
For Xunzi, the mind is the ruler of the body, the emptying of which leads one closer to the Way. His argument is similar to that of Zhuangzi's who says that the emptying of the mind will lead one to be actively spontaneous and in harmony with the way. However, as noted below in the Man's Nature is Evil section, Xunzi argues for the use of ancient rites and regulations to hone the self, while Zhuangzi believes that simply emptying the mind, without absorbing such information regarding ritual and regulation, and thus falling into a state of wu-wei is sufficient to walking the path of the Way.
Employing a technique used by philosophers before him, such as Mozi and Confucius, Xunzi argues for the rectification of names. There are several reasons why Xunzi considered the correct and consistent naming of things was important: so a ruler could adequately command his people in accordance with the Way, without being misunderstood. If misunderstandings were too easily made, then the Way would not effectively be put into action. This appears to be Xunzi's most important reason: "When the ruler's accomplishments are long lasting and his undertakings are brought to completion, this is the height of a good government. All of this is the result of being careful to see that men stick to the names which have been agreed upon." Also, without universally accepted definitions, right and wrong would become blurred .
To " between things that are the same and those that are different' one must use their senses to understand a thing and then compare it to understandings of other things. From these observations, names can be given based on the sameness or difference between things. Individual things will have their own names in this construct , as will groups of things . The naming of things can become either more or less precise from this point . Xunzi also speaks of "things which share the same form but occupy different places and things which have different forms but occupy the same place." The former, such as two flutes, should be distinguished as two separate flutes, although they are of the same form, because they occupy different spaces. However as one flute is used and becomes damaged or broken over time, it appears to change into something else. But even though it seems to become something different, it is still the same flute and should be regarded as such.
This attention to detail perhaps sounds satirical, but has practical use. Xunzi elaborates on exactly what the name "sage" means, what sort of person it can apply to. Ideally, if all people are able to accurately employ the word "sage" finding a proper teacher , for example, would be easier. Likewise, the idea of being concise and accurate in speaking is made to be a characteristic of the sage and thus antithetical to the sloppy speaking of a fool, who is incapable of learning without the understanding of names.
Xunzi also uses the rectification of names to refute previous philosophers such as the writers of the Daodejing or Laozi . In this chapter, although without obvious reference to any particular person or school of thought, calls into question the word "desire." In the Daodejing, Laozi argues for the renunciation of desires on the basis that they only lead to excessive and selfish races toward satiety. Xunzi, however, argues that "those who maintain that desires must be gotten rid of before there can be orderly government fail to consider whether desires can be guided..." Here Xunzi asserts that if someone truly understood desires, they would not make such a contradictory statement . Xunzi focuses on the mind's ability to reform actions: if one's mind is trained, although there are many desires they will not be acted upon. Conversely, if the mind is untrained, although there are few desires they ''will'' be acted upon. In this way, Xunzi uses classification and understanding to assert his point: it is the mind which has control over desires, desires cannot simply be forgotten because they are part of human nature and are from Heaven, as he continues to explain. Also, if a man is truly in accordance with the Way, he will not allow mere desires to change his course of direction.
The rectification of names is an important one considering the course of Chinese philosophy in this era. Philosophers such as Confucius and Laozi, for example, used similar words and ideas to mean slightly different meanings. One of the aims of name rectification was to create a consistent language that would allow each word to have a consistent and universal meaning, so to avoid the confusion of multiple Ways, etc.
Xunzi believed that all people are born with natural tendencies toward "waywardness": that is, a taste for profit and beauty and a susceptibility to jealousy and hate, all of which, if indulged in, would lead to disorder and criminality. In order to attain a oneness with the Way, a dedication to morality, Xunzi argued for the guidance of a proper teacher: only this would allow one to become morally upright. A proper teacher would have been trained in the teachings of the ancient sage kings who saw that human nature was inherently immoral and thus wrong. From this realization, the sage kings developed rituals and regulations to shape people into accordance with the Way. Thus the process of following the teachings of the sage kings equates a renunciation of one's evil nature and a commitment to conscious activity .
While Xunzi is a Confucianist, he disembarks from the arguments of previous Confucians here: Confucius claimed that some people were born with the ability to love learning and act in accordance with the Way. Mencius believed that all people were inherently good and that it was negative environmental influences which caused immorality in people. But Xunzi picks apart Mencius's argument in his writing. Mencius, whom Xunzi refers to by name, does not understand the difference between nature and conscious practice. The former is inherent, as sight is to the eye or hearing is to the ear: one cannot be taught to see. However conscious thought is something which must be taught and learned:
Now it is the nature of man that when he is hungry he will desire satisfaction, when he is cold he will desire warmth, and when he is weary he will desire rest. This is his emotional nature. And yet a man, although he is hungry, will not dare to be the first to eat if he is in the presence of his elders, because he knows that he should yield to them, and although he is weary, he will not dare to demand rest because he knows that he should relieve others of the burden of labor. For a son to yield to his father or a younger brother to relieve his elder brother - acts such as these are all contrary to man's nature and run counter to his proper forms enjoined by ritual principles.
However, the flaw with Xunzi's argument is as follows: if human nature is naturally evil, how did the sage kings come to invent the idea of goodness and morality? Xunzi recognizes the apparent flaw and argues that, just as a potter consciously creates a pot , so does a sage consciously create the rituals and regulations to be followed if morality is the goal. These creations are not part of one's nature, but rather stem from a departure from nature. Xunzi states that "every man who desires to do good does so precisely because his nature is evil... Whatever a man lacks in himself he will seek outside" as the sage kings did when they referenced their personal experiments and ideas to create a means toward morality. According to Xunzi, if people were naturally good, then leaving peoples and governments without laws and restrictions would cause no harm or disorder. Xunzi does not believe this state of affairs to be possible.
Xunzi believed that all people are born with the ''capacity'' to ''become'' good. For example, great kings like Yao and Shun were born no different from thieves like Robber Zhi or the tyrant Jie: that is, all four possessed the same nature at birth.
The man in the street can become a Yu. What does this mean? What made the sage emperor Yu a Yu, I would reply, was the fact that he practiced benevolence and righteousness and abided by the proper rules and standards. If this is so, then benevolence, righteousness, and proper standards must be based upon principles which can be known and practiced. Any man in the street .
Xunzi argues that if one associates with gentlemen, one will become a gentleman; if one associates with the immoral, one will become immoral . Xunzi ends the chapter with, "'If you do not know a man, look at his friends; if you do not know a ruler, look at his attendants.' Environment is the important thing! Environment is the important thing!" This attitude toward nurture over nature may appear similar to that of Mencius, but the stances of the two in this case should not be confused: while Mencius argues that people are born good but need a positive environment in order to fully prosper with the Way, Xunzi argues that it is only the environment which can save a person from immorality.
Educated in the state of Qi, Xun Zi was associated with the school, but
his philosophy has a more pragmatic flavour compared to Confucian optimism.
Some scholars attribute it to the divisive times.
The Xunzi
Unlike the aphoristic style of the Analects and Mencius, Xun Zi was a more rigorous thinker and wrote elaborately argued essays, which were collected into the book called ''Xunzi'' . He distinguishes what is born in man and what must be learned through rigorous education.
* "Discussion of heaven " rejects the Mencian notion that heaven has a moral will. Instead, Xun Zi asserts that heaven is simply the natural world; thus people should focus on the human, social realm, rather than dealing with heavenly ideas.
*"Discussion of Ritual Propriety ," discusses rules of individual and social conduct .
*"Dispelling Obsessions," being too focused on only one aspect of a situation, one often loses sight of the larger purpose.
* "Proper Use of Terms" : A name becomes proper for a situation through conventional usage, but once this is fixed, it is improper to deviate from these norms. Thus he adopts a conventional view for the origin of the sound-to-meaning mapping, although the objects signified by the term remain .
:*The term Zhengming often appears in the English literature as "The Rectification of Names". This is a misleading transmission of the Chinese meaning; because, in Chinese, the term is equivocal. Due to the nature of the Chinese language, Chinese compound words can function equally well as nouns ''or'' verbs . And, moroever, given that the constituent morphemes Zheng and Ming have a citation meaning of "correct" and "name" respectively, the ''Zheng'' aspect of the compound "Zheng-Ming" can either be functioning as a "''stative verb''" , or as a "''causative verb''" ; as follows:
::* Providing the implication that the name that is used to label the actual state of affairs of the world has been ''adjusted'' so that a name/label has now been changed so that it now matches that state of affairs ; or
::* Provide the implication that the prevailing state of affairs of the world has been so ''adjusted'' that it has been "corrected" or "rectified" such that it now matches the citation meaning of the designated name/label .
* "Human Dispositions are Detestable" : Rejects Mencius' claim that people have a natural inclination toward goodness. Confucius, who simply said that people are similar by nature, was not clear on the matter. Xun Zi holds that man is naturally inclined towards selfishness and evil, and that if these inclinations are not curbed, human societies would devolve into . He views morality as a social construct, emphasizing the difference between .
This last view engendered considerable debate over two centuries.
His disciples Li Si and the state royal Han Feizi developed the quasi-authoritarian aspects of his thought into the doctrine called the School of Law, or .
While Xun Zi was influential during times, his influence waned compared to Mencius during the Tang dynasty.
Dispelling Obsession
Xunzi's chapter on dispelling obsession can be understood via the use of an ode he uses from the Book of Odes:
I pick and pick the burr-weed
But it does not fill my slanting basket.
I sigh for my loved one;
I would be in the ranks of Zhou.
Because the mind of the picker in this ode is divided between her task at hand and the love she has for a man in the ranks of Zhou, she cannot complete the simple task of filling her basket. Xunzi warns against falling into obsession in this chapter. When one is subject to obsession, it means that they are focusing so intently on a certain thing their minds will not be able to absorb any new information outside of the realm of their obsession. Their minds are thus divided in the sense of their being a wall too tall to see over in their head separating the obsession from everything else. Obsession, as argued by Xunzi, is so strong that the ineptitude it causes can lead to one's death without them even knowing it. Examples of people who fell into such obsessions include rulers who neglected their duties at the hands of an obsession and thus fell into discord with their people, and usurpers of the throne who also met their end because of their obsession with gaining power.
Alternately, a sage uses the Way to refrain from obsession and to keep his mind open. In order to accept the Way, one must first understand it, then approve it, then abide by it. The Way is the path away from obsession because of the nature of its interaction with the mind, which is empty, unified and still, according to Xunzi, when it is in accord with the Way. When it happens that one's mind is empty, one is able to possess much intellect without said intellect interfering with the process of absorbing new information. When it happens that one's mind is unified, one understands differences and the variety of information, but does not allow "one fact to impinge upon that of another." When it happens that one's mind is still, although one may daydream and imagine and have a mind constantly in motion, one does not allow these mental meanderings to distort perceptions. It is important to note that Xunzi is referring to a peace of mind rather than an attempt to unlearn what one has learned, as Laozi does, when he refers to the mind as being empty, unified and still. When one is in accordance with the Way they are able to treat the world holistically, while one outside of the Way can only see the world as a collection of unrelated units. With this achieved, learning can be done, and should be done to the point of sufficiency .
For Xunzi, the mind is the ruler of the body, the emptying of which leads one closer to the Way. His argument is similar to that of Zhuangzi's who says that the emptying of the mind will lead one to be actively spontaneous and in harmony with the way. However, as noted below in the Man's Nature is Evil section, Xunzi argues for the use of ancient rites and regulations to hone the self, while Zhuangzi believes that simply emptying the mind, without absorbing such information regarding ritual and regulation, and thus falling into a state of wu-wei is sufficient to walking the path of the Way.
Rectifying Names
Employing a technique used by philosophers before him, such as Mozi and Confucius, Xunzi argues for the rectification of names. There are several reasons why Xunzi considered the correct and consistent naming of things was important: so a ruler could adequately command his people in accordance with the Way, without being misunderstood. If misunderstandings were too easily made, then the Way would not effectively be put into action. This appears to be Xunzi's most important reason: "When the ruler's accomplishments are long lasting and his undertakings are brought to completion, this is the height of a good government. All of this is the result of being careful to see that men stick to the names which have been agreed upon." Also, without universally accepted definitions, right and wrong would become blurred .
To " between things that are the same and those that are different' one must use their senses to understand a thing and then compare it to understandings of other things. From these observations, names can be given based on the sameness or difference between things. Individual things will have their own names in this construct , as will groups of things . The naming of things can become either more or less precise from this point . Xunzi also speaks of "things which share the same form but occupy different places and things which have different forms but occupy the same place." The former, such as two flutes, should be distinguished as two separate flutes, although they are of the same form, because they occupy different spaces. However as one flute is used and becomes damaged or broken over time, it appears to change into something else. But even though it seems to become something different, it is still the same flute and should be regarded as such.
This attention to detail perhaps sounds satirical, but has practical use. Xunzi elaborates on exactly what the name "sage" means, what sort of person it can apply to. Ideally, if all people are able to accurately employ the word "sage" finding a proper teacher , for example, would be easier. Likewise, the idea of being concise and accurate in speaking is made to be a characteristic of the sage and thus antithetical to the sloppy speaking of a fool, who is incapable of learning without the understanding of names.
Xunzi also uses the rectification of names to refute previous philosophers such as the writers of the Daodejing or Laozi . In this chapter, although without obvious reference to any particular person or school of thought, calls into question the word "desire." In the Daodejing, Laozi argues for the renunciation of desires on the basis that they only lead to excessive and selfish races toward satiety. Xunzi, however, argues that "those who maintain that desires must be gotten rid of before there can be orderly government fail to consider whether desires can be guided..." Here Xunzi asserts that if someone truly understood desires, they would not make such a contradictory statement . Xunzi focuses on the mind's ability to reform actions: if one's mind is trained, although there are many desires they will not be acted upon. Conversely, if the mind is untrained, although there are few desires they ''will'' be acted upon. In this way, Xunzi uses classification and understanding to assert his point: it is the mind which has control over desires, desires cannot simply be forgotten because they are part of human nature and are from Heaven, as he continues to explain. Also, if a man is truly in accordance with the Way, he will not allow mere desires to change his course of direction.
The rectification of names is an important one considering the course of Chinese philosophy in this era. Philosophers such as Confucius and Laozi, for example, used similar words and ideas to mean slightly different meanings. One of the aims of name rectification was to create a consistent language that would allow each word to have a consistent and universal meaning, so to avoid the confusion of multiple Ways, etc.
Man's Nature is Wayward
Xunzi believed that all people are born with natural tendencies toward "waywardness": that is, a taste for profit and beauty and a susceptibility to jealousy and hate, all of which, if indulged in, would lead to disorder and criminality. In order to attain a oneness with the Way, a dedication to morality, Xunzi argued for the guidance of a proper teacher: only this would allow one to become morally upright. A proper teacher would have been trained in the teachings of the ancient sage kings who saw that human nature was inherently immoral and thus wrong. From this realization, the sage kings developed rituals and regulations to shape people into accordance with the Way. Thus the process of following the teachings of the sage kings equates a renunciation of one's evil nature and a commitment to conscious activity .
While Xunzi is a Confucianist, he disembarks from the arguments of previous Confucians here: Confucius claimed that some people were born with the ability to love learning and act in accordance with the Way. Mencius believed that all people were inherently good and that it was negative environmental influences which caused immorality in people. But Xunzi picks apart Mencius's argument in his writing. Mencius, whom Xunzi refers to by name, does not understand the difference between nature and conscious practice. The former is inherent, as sight is to the eye or hearing is to the ear: one cannot be taught to see. However conscious thought is something which must be taught and learned:
Now it is the nature of man that when he is hungry he will desire satisfaction, when he is cold he will desire warmth, and when he is weary he will desire rest. This is his emotional nature. And yet a man, although he is hungry, will not dare to be the first to eat if he is in the presence of his elders, because he knows that he should yield to them, and although he is weary, he will not dare to demand rest because he knows that he should relieve others of the burden of labor. For a son to yield to his father or a younger brother to relieve his elder brother - acts such as these are all contrary to man's nature and run counter to his proper forms enjoined by ritual principles.
However, the flaw with Xunzi's argument is as follows: if human nature is naturally evil, how did the sage kings come to invent the idea of goodness and morality? Xunzi recognizes the apparent flaw and argues that, just as a potter consciously creates a pot , so does a sage consciously create the rituals and regulations to be followed if morality is the goal. These creations are not part of one's nature, but rather stem from a departure from nature. Xunzi states that "every man who desires to do good does so precisely because his nature is evil... Whatever a man lacks in himself he will seek outside" as the sage kings did when they referenced their personal experiments and ideas to create a means toward morality. According to Xunzi, if people were naturally good, then leaving peoples and governments without laws and restrictions would cause no harm or disorder. Xunzi does not believe this state of affairs to be possible.
Xunzi believed that all people are born with the ''capacity'' to ''become'' good. For example, great kings like Yao and Shun were born no different from thieves like Robber Zhi or the tyrant Jie: that is, all four possessed the same nature at birth.
The man in the street can become a Yu. What does this mean? What made the sage emperor Yu a Yu, I would reply, was the fact that he practiced benevolence and righteousness and abided by the proper rules and standards. If this is so, then benevolence, righteousness, and proper standards must be based upon principles which can be known and practiced. Any man in the street .
Xunzi argues that if one associates with gentlemen, one will become a gentleman; if one associates with the immoral, one will become immoral . Xunzi ends the chapter with, "'If you do not know a man, look at his friends; if you do not know a ruler, look at his attendants.' Environment is the important thing! Environment is the important thing!" This attitude toward nurture over nature may appear similar to that of Mencius, but the stances of the two in this case should not be confused: while Mencius argues that people are born good but need a positive environment in order to fully prosper with the Way, Xunzi argues that it is only the environment which can save a person from immorality.
Xu Youyu
Xu Youyu , is a Chinese philosopher, public intellectual and proponent of Chinese liberalism.
The following statement is representative of Xu's viewpoint:
"the core of liberalism is affirmation of individual value and esteem, respect and protection of personal rights and interests. Profound understanding of liberalism would necessarily break with the traditional conception that suppresses individuality and takes the nation and collective as the only value. But it also requires a clear distinction between individualism and egoism or selfishness."
He is a Research Fellow in the Institute of Philosophy of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, is an expert on Western social theories including Marxism and the Frankfurt School. He is particularly noted as a historian of the Cultural Revolution.
The following statement is representative of Xu's viewpoint:
"the core of liberalism is affirmation of individual value and esteem, respect and protection of personal rights and interests. Profound understanding of liberalism would necessarily break with the traditional conception that suppresses individuality and takes the nation and collective as the only value. But it also requires a clear distinction between individualism and egoism or selfishness."
He is a Research Fellow in the Institute of Philosophy of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, is an expert on Western social theories including Marxism and the Frankfurt School. He is particularly noted as a historian of the Cultural Revolution.
Xiong Shili
Xiong Shili was a modern Chinese philosopher whose major work ''A New Treatise on Consciousness-only'' is a Confucian critique of the Buddhist "consciousness-only" theory popularized in China by the Tang Dynasty pilgrim Xuanzang.
Born in Huanggang, Hubei, Xiong was a participant in the that ended the Qing Dynasty and ushered in China's first republic, left politics in 1917 in disgust over corruption and what he termed "latent feudalism" among the revolutionaries.
Offered a sinecure as a school teacher, Xiong stopped in Nanjing to listen to lectures at the Buddhist China Institute for Inner Learning , Buddhists refer to metaphysics as 'inner learning' and science as 'outer learning.'. Xiong remained at the Institute as a student of Ouyang Xiu, the Institute's learned lay teacher.
In the 1920s, the Chancellor of Peking University, Cai Yuanpei, stopped in Nanjing to visit Ouyang Xiu. Cai Yuanpei asked Ouyang Xiu to recommend someone to teach Buddhist Logic at the Philosophy Department at Peking University. Ouyang Xiu recommended Xiong and passed Cai Yuanpei a rough draft of Xiong's ''New Treatise on Consciousness-only''. Impressed with the Xiong's work, Cai Yuanpei invited Xiong to Peking University where Xiong published his major work ''A New Treatise on Consciousness-only'' in 1932.
* ''A New Treatise on Consciousness-only''
* ''A Refutation of the Refutation of the New Treatise on Consciousness-only''
* ''Origins of Confucianism''
* ''Essay on Substance and Function''
* ''Essential Sayings of Shili''
* ''First Continuation of the Essential Sayings of Shili''
* ''Essentials for Reading the Classics''
* ''A Comprehensive Explanation of Buddhist Terms''
* ''On Change''
* ''Conservative Buddhist Clandestine Opposition to Xuan Zang During the Tang Dynasty''
A. Childhood and Early Education
B. The 1911 Revolution
#He Zixin and Wang Han
#The Science Study Group
#Wang Han’s Assassination Attempt on Tie Liang
#Society for the Daily Increase of Knowledge
#Xiong Shili on the 1911 Revolution
#Xiong Shili After the 1911 Revolution
C. The Buddhist Scholar
#The Institute for Inner Learning
#Xiong’s Early Interest in Buddhism
#Xiong at the Institute for Inner Learning
D. Professor of Philosophy
#Peking University
#Liang Shuming and Lin Zaiping
#Ma Yifu
#A Student’s View of Xiong
#The Research Institute of Chinese Philosophy
#Xiong’s Academic Career
Born in Huanggang, Hubei, Xiong was a participant in the that ended the Qing Dynasty and ushered in China's first republic, left politics in 1917 in disgust over corruption and what he termed "latent feudalism" among the revolutionaries.
Offered a sinecure as a school teacher, Xiong stopped in Nanjing to listen to lectures at the Buddhist China Institute for Inner Learning , Buddhists refer to metaphysics as 'inner learning' and science as 'outer learning.'. Xiong remained at the Institute as a student of Ouyang Xiu, the Institute's learned lay teacher.
In the 1920s, the Chancellor of Peking University, Cai Yuanpei, stopped in Nanjing to visit Ouyang Xiu. Cai Yuanpei asked Ouyang Xiu to recommend someone to teach Buddhist Logic at the Philosophy Department at Peking University. Ouyang Xiu recommended Xiong and passed Cai Yuanpei a rough draft of Xiong's ''New Treatise on Consciousness-only''. Impressed with the Xiong's work, Cai Yuanpei invited Xiong to Peking University where Xiong published his major work ''A New Treatise on Consciousness-only'' in 1932.
Major works
* ''A New Treatise on Consciousness-only''
* ''A Refutation of the Refutation of the New Treatise on Consciousness-only''
* ''Origins of Confucianism''
* ''Essay on Substance and Function''
* ''Essential Sayings of Shili''
* ''First Continuation of the Essential Sayings of Shili''
* ''Essentials for Reading the Classics''
* ''A Comprehensive Explanation of Buddhist Terms''
* ''On Change''
* ''Conservative Buddhist Clandestine Opposition to Xuan Zang During the Tang Dynasty''
Outline
A. Childhood and Early Education
B. The 1911 Revolution
#He Zixin and Wang Han
#The Science Study Group
#Wang Han’s Assassination Attempt on Tie Liang
#Society for the Daily Increase of Knowledge
#Xiong Shili on the 1911 Revolution
#Xiong Shili After the 1911 Revolution
C. The Buddhist Scholar
#The Institute for Inner Learning
#Xiong’s Early Interest in Buddhism
#Xiong at the Institute for Inner Learning
D. Professor of Philosophy
#Peking University
#Liang Shuming and Lin Zaiping
#Ma Yifu
#A Student’s View of Xiong
#The Research Institute of Chinese Philosophy
#Xiong’s Academic Career
Ximen Bao
Ximen Bao was an ancient Chinese government minister and court advisor to Marquis Wen of Wei during the Warring States period of China. He was known as an early rationalist, who had the abolish by law the inhumane practice of sacrificing people to river deities. Although the earlier statesman Sunshu Ao is credited as China's first hydraulic engineer , Ximen Bao is nonetheless credited as the first engineer in China to create a large canal irrigation system.
Ximen Bao became well known in his lifetime and posthumously for his grandiose works in hydraulic engineering during the 5th century BC. He organized a massive diversion of the Zhang River , which had formerly flowed into the Huang He River at Anyang. The new course that the river took under his diversion project brought the river to meet the Huang He further down its course at a bend near modern-day Tianjin.
Work on the canal system began sometime between 403 BC and 387 BC, when Marquis Wen and his successor Marquis Wu reigned over the State of Wei. Due to several setbacks it was not fully completed until a century later, during the time of Wen's grandson, King Xiang . It was during this time that the Wei engineer Shi Chi completed the work of Ximen Bao.
In honor of the Zhang River diversion project, the local populace made a popular song about it, as recorded in the historical work of the later Han Dynasty historian Ban Gu.
Hydraulic engineering
Ximen Bao became well known in his lifetime and posthumously for his grandiose works in hydraulic engineering during the 5th century BC. He organized a massive diversion of the Zhang River , which had formerly flowed into the Huang He River at Anyang. The new course that the river took under his diversion project brought the river to meet the Huang He further down its course at a bend near modern-day Tianjin.
Work on the canal system began sometime between 403 BC and 387 BC, when Marquis Wen and his successor Marquis Wu reigned over the State of Wei. Due to several setbacks it was not fully completed until a century later, during the time of Wen's grandson, King Xiang . It was during this time that the Wei engineer Shi Chi completed the work of Ximen Bao.
In honor of the Zhang River diversion project, the local populace made a popular song about it, as recorded in the historical work of the later Han Dynasty historian Ban Gu.
Wu Enyu
Wu Enyu was a Manchu-Chinese philosopher, political scientist and literary critic. In the latter function he was especially known for his criticism of .
Graduating at the Department for Philosophy of Qinghua University, Beijing, in 1933, Wu became the editor-in-chief of ''Sibian'' , the literary and philosophical supplement of ''Chenbao'' magazine, as well as of the philosophical monthly periodical ''Wenzhe yuekan'' . In 1936 he went to study abroad in London. Returning to China, he was offered the position of professor of political sciences at Chongqing Zhongyang University, a post he held from 1939 to 1949. From 1946 to 1952 he also held a professorship for political sciences at Peking University. From 1978 until his death a year later, he was named research fellow at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences.
Graduating at the Department for Philosophy of Qinghua University, Beijing, in 1933, Wu became the editor-in-chief of ''Sibian'' , the literary and philosophical supplement of ''Chenbao'' magazine, as well as of the philosophical monthly periodical ''Wenzhe yuekan'' . In 1936 he went to study abroad in London. Returning to China, he was offered the position of professor of political sciences at Chongqing Zhongyang University, a post he held from 1939 to 1949. From 1946 to 1952 he also held a professorship for political sciences at Peking University. From 1978 until his death a year later, he was named research fellow at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences.
Woo Tsin-hang
Woo Tsin-hang1 , born Wu Tiao , with the courtesy name Chih-hui , was a and philosopher who was the chairman of the 1912–13 Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation that created Zhuyin and standardized Guoyu pronunciation.
Woo Tsin-hang was born in Wujin , Jiangsu province, during the Qing Dynasty.
In 1905, before the establishment of the Republic of China, he met Sun Yat-sen in Europe and joined the Tong Meng Hui. He also became the first Academic Scholar of the Humanity Division of the Academia Sinica and a representative in the National People's Delegate Conferences . He moved to Taiwan and was the teacher of Chiang Ching-kuo. He died in Taipei at the age of 88.
He was also respected for his various styles of calligraphy, which is evident in the design of chu-yin; all of its symbols have the strokes and essence of calligraphy.
His publications can be found in ''The Collection of the Works of Mr. Wu Chih-hui'' .
"Woo Tsin-hang," used in the Academia Sinica's Western publications, is his name pronounced in the Jiangsu dialect of .
Woo Tsin-hang was born in Wujin , Jiangsu province, during the Qing Dynasty.
In 1905, before the establishment of the Republic of China, he met Sun Yat-sen in Europe and joined the Tong Meng Hui. He also became the first Academic Scholar of the Humanity Division of the Academia Sinica and a representative in the National People's Delegate Conferences . He moved to Taiwan and was the teacher of Chiang Ching-kuo. He died in Taipei at the age of 88.
He was also respected for his various styles of calligraphy, which is evident in the design of chu-yin; all of its symbols have the strokes and essence of calligraphy.
His publications can be found in ''The Collection of the Works of Mr. Wu Chih-hui'' .
"Woo Tsin-hang," used in the Academia Sinica's Western publications, is his name pronounced in the Jiangsu dialect of .
Wang Ruoshui
Wang Ruoshui , was a journalist and philosopher, major exponent of Marxist humanism in China and of Chinese liberalism.
Wang studied philosophy in the late 1940s, converting to Marxism and joining the Communist Party prior to the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949. Joining the staff of ''People's Daily'', he became editor of its theory section.
In the 1950s, Wang was a devotee of Maoism and took part in ideological campaigns targeting the previously popular ideas of Hu Shi, Liang Shuming and Hu Feng . He wrote an article entitled "Philosophy of the Table" which defended Mao's version of dialectical materialism, winning praise from Mao himself.
Prior to the Cultural Revolution, at the height of the Sino-Soviet split Wang was recruited by Maoist literary henchman to a group he was organizing to research and criticize the Marxist humanism which was then influential in the Eastern bloc, exemplified by Gyorgy Lukacs in Hungary.
Soon after the downfall of the Maoists in the later 1970s, Wang revealed that these much reviled "revisionist" doctrines had had a great impact on him, and had provided a lens through which he could understand and condemn the Cultural Revolution and the cult of Mao himself.
Wang was expelled from the Communist party in 1987 as a part of a campaign against "bourgeois liberalization". He continued to write trenchant criticisms of the regime, and conduct polemics against Mao's former secretary Hu Qiaomu , a doctrinaire Marxist who had been behind his expulsion from the Party.
Wang studied philosophy in the late 1940s, converting to Marxism and joining the Communist Party prior to the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949. Joining the staff of ''People's Daily'', he became editor of its theory section.
In the 1950s, Wang was a devotee of Maoism and took part in ideological campaigns targeting the previously popular ideas of Hu Shi, Liang Shuming and Hu Feng . He wrote an article entitled "Philosophy of the Table" which defended Mao's version of dialectical materialism, winning praise from Mao himself.
Prior to the Cultural Revolution, at the height of the Sino-Soviet split Wang was recruited by Maoist literary henchman to a group he was organizing to research and criticize the Marxist humanism which was then influential in the Eastern bloc, exemplified by Gyorgy Lukacs in Hungary.
Soon after the downfall of the Maoists in the later 1970s, Wang revealed that these much reviled "revisionist" doctrines had had a great impact on him, and had provided a lens through which he could understand and condemn the Cultural Revolution and the cult of Mao himself.
Wang was expelled from the Communist party in 1987 as a part of a campaign against "bourgeois liberalization". He continued to write trenchant criticisms of the regime, and conduct polemics against Mao's former secretary Hu Qiaomu , a doctrinaire Marxist who had been behind his expulsion from the Party.
Wang Fuzhi
Wang Fuzhi courtesy name Ernong , pseudonym Chuanshan , was a philosopher of the late , early dynasties.
Born to a scholarly family in Hengyang in Hunan province in 1619, Wang fu-zi began his education in the Chinese classic texts when very young. He passed his civil-service examination at the age of twenty-four, but his projected career was diverted by the invasion of China by the Manchus, the founders of the Qing dynasty.
Staying loyal to the Ming emperors, Wang first fought against the invaders, and then spent the rest of his life in hiding from them. His refuge was at the foot of the mountain Ch'uan-shan, from which he gained his alternative name). He died in 1693, though it's not known for certain where or how.
Wang Fuzhi is said to have written over a hundred books, but many of them have been lost; the remainder are collected as the ''Ch’uan-shan i-shu ch’uan-chi''.
Wang was a follower of Confucius, but he believed that the neo-Confucian philosophy which dominated China at the time had distorted Confucius's teachings. He therefore wrote his own commentaries on the Confucian classics , and gradually developed his own philosophical system. He wrote on many topics, including metaphysics, epistemology, , poetry, and politics.
Apart from Confucius, his influences included Zhang Zai and the major early neo-Confucian Zhu Xi.
Wang’s metaphysical approach isn't easily pigeon-holed, but it isn't too misleading to think of it as a version of materialism. Only ''qi'' exists; '''' , which was a central concept in traditional Confucian thought, doesn't exist independently, being simply the principle of the ''qi''. ''Qi'', thus the whole universe, has always existed.
Wang's metaphysical ideas led him to a naturalist moral philosophy . There are no values in nature; virtues and values are assigned to objects and actions by human beings. In particular, human desires are not inherently evil ; they're not only unavoidable, being an essential part of our nature, but can be beneficial — the moral nature of human beings is grounded in our feelings for others. It's only lack of moderation that leads to problems.
Human desires comprise the main example of our relationship – as material beings – with the material world in which we live, and human nature develops out of our initial material nature together with the changes that we undergo as a result of our interactions with the world.
Wang laid great stress on the need for both experience and reason: we must study the world using our senses, and reason carefully about it. Thus, knowledge and action are intertwined, and acting is the ground of knowing. The gaining of knowledge is a slow and laborious process; there's no room in Wang's epistemology for flashes of enlightenment.
Aside from his materialist stance, Wang' popularity in modern China came largely as a result of his political and historical thought. Government, he argued, should benefit the people, not those in power. History is a continuous cycle of renewal, involving the gradual but continuous progress of human society. There are, of course, periods of chaos and want as well as of stability and prosperity, depending on the degree of virtue of the emperor and of the people as a whole, but the underlying direction is upwards. This isn't the result of fate, of a mystical pattern of events built into the structure of the world; it's rather the result of the natural laws that govern human beings and society. Thus he rejects the notion of a golden age in the past which should be emulated.
With regard to practical politics, Wang believed that the power of the landlords was an evil, and should be weakened by means of higher taxation, which would also lead to an increase in numbers of land-owning peasants.
Life
Born to a scholarly family in Hengyang in Hunan province in 1619, Wang fu-zi began his education in the Chinese classic texts when very young. He passed his civil-service examination at the age of twenty-four, but his projected career was diverted by the invasion of China by the Manchus, the founders of the Qing dynasty.
Staying loyal to the Ming emperors, Wang first fought against the invaders, and then spent the rest of his life in hiding from them. His refuge was at the foot of the mountain Ch'uan-shan, from which he gained his alternative name). He died in 1693, though it's not known for certain where or how.
Philosophical work
Wang Fuzhi is said to have written over a hundred books, but many of them have been lost; the remainder are collected as the ''Ch’uan-shan i-shu ch’uan-chi''.
Wang was a follower of Confucius, but he believed that the neo-Confucian philosophy which dominated China at the time had distorted Confucius's teachings. He therefore wrote his own commentaries on the Confucian classics , and gradually developed his own philosophical system. He wrote on many topics, including metaphysics, epistemology, , poetry, and politics.
Apart from Confucius, his influences included Zhang Zai and the major early neo-Confucian Zhu Xi.
Metaphysics
Wang’s metaphysical approach isn't easily pigeon-holed, but it isn't too misleading to think of it as a version of materialism. Only ''qi'' exists; '''' , which was a central concept in traditional Confucian thought, doesn't exist independently, being simply the principle of the ''qi''. ''Qi'', thus the whole universe, has always existed.
Ethics
Wang's metaphysical ideas led him to a naturalist moral philosophy . There are no values in nature; virtues and values are assigned to objects and actions by human beings. In particular, human desires are not inherently evil ; they're not only unavoidable, being an essential part of our nature, but can be beneficial — the moral nature of human beings is grounded in our feelings for others. It's only lack of moderation that leads to problems.
Human desires comprise the main example of our relationship – as material beings – with the material world in which we live, and human nature develops out of our initial material nature together with the changes that we undergo as a result of our interactions with the world.
Epistemology
Wang laid great stress on the need for both experience and reason: we must study the world using our senses, and reason carefully about it. Thus, knowledge and action are intertwined, and acting is the ground of knowing. The gaining of knowledge is a slow and laborious process; there's no room in Wang's epistemology for flashes of enlightenment.
Politics & history
Aside from his materialist stance, Wang' popularity in modern China came largely as a result of his political and historical thought. Government, he argued, should benefit the people, not those in power. History is a continuous cycle of renewal, involving the gradual but continuous progress of human society. There are, of course, periods of chaos and want as well as of stability and prosperity, depending on the degree of virtue of the emperor and of the people as a whole, but the underlying direction is upwards. This isn't the result of fate, of a mystical pattern of events built into the structure of the world; it's rather the result of the natural laws that govern human beings and society. Thus he rejects the notion of a golden age in the past which should be emulated.
With regard to practical politics, Wang believed that the power of the landlords was an evil, and should be weakened by means of higher taxation, which would also lead to an increase in numbers of land-owning peasants.
Wang Fu (philosopher)
Wang Fu (, c. 78 - 163），was a philosopher from Zhenyuan County, Gansu, Gansu, China. He is best known for the text Qian fu lun , which endorsed the Confucian model of government.
* Ann Behnke Kinney. ''The Art of the Han Essay: Wang Fu's Ch'ien-Fu Lun''. Phoenix: Arizona State University Center for Asian Research, 1990. ISBN 0-939252-23-6
Further reading
* Ann Behnke Kinney. ''The Art of the Han Essay: Wang Fu's Ch'ien-Fu Lun''. Phoenix: Arizona State University Center for Asian Research, 1990. ISBN 0-939252-23-6
Wang Chong
Wang Chong , Wang also accurately described the process of the water cycle.
Unlike most of the Chinese philosophers of his period, Wang spent much of his life in non-self-inflicted poverty. He was said to have studied by standing at bookstalls, and had a superb memory, which allowed him to become very well-versed in the Chinese classics. He eventually reached the rank of District Secretary, a post which he soon lost as a result of his combative and anti-authoritarian nature.
Wang was born into a poor family at modern . With the urging of his parents, Wang travelled to the Eastern Han capital at Luoyang to study at the . Due to his humble origins, Wang became resentful towards officials who were admired simply because of their wealth and power and not for any scholarly abilities. However, Wang soon resigned from this post as well. Wang later died at home around the year 100. The official Wang Lang acquired a copy of Wang's ''Lun heng'' and brought it with him on his trip in 198 to the Han court established at Xuchang by Prime Minister Cao Cao .
Although Wang Chong was certain of his ideas about eclipses , his ideas on this would not be later accepted in China. Although there were some figures like ''Liu Chi'', writing in his Lun Tian of 274 AD that supported Wang's theory by arguing the inferior Yin could never obstruct the superior Yang , Liu was still outside of the mainstream accepted Confucian tradition. The Song Dynasty scientist Shen Kuo supported the old theory of a spherical sun and moon by using his own reasoning about eclipses, which he explained were due to the moon and the sun coming into obstruction of one another. The Chinese philosopher Zhu Xi also supported this theory in his writing. Although Wang Chong was right about the water cycle and other aspects of early science, his stern opposition to mainstream Confucian thought at the time made him a skeptic of all their theories, including eclipses .
Unlike most of the Chinese philosophers of his period, Wang spent much of his life in non-self-inflicted poverty. He was said to have studied by standing at bookstalls, and had a superb memory, which allowed him to become very well-versed in the Chinese classics. He eventually reached the rank of District Secretary, a post which he soon lost as a result of his combative and anti-authoritarian nature.
Life
Wang was born into a poor family at modern . With the urging of his parents, Wang travelled to the Eastern Han capital at Luoyang to study at the . Due to his humble origins, Wang became resentful towards officials who were admired simply because of their wealth and power and not for any scholarly abilities. However, Wang soon resigned from this post as well. Wang later died at home around the year 100. The official Wang Lang acquired a copy of Wang's ''Lun heng'' and brought it with him on his trip in 198 to the Han court established at Xuchang by Prime Minister Cao Cao .
Although Wang Chong was certain of his ideas about eclipses , his ideas on this would not be later accepted in China. Although there were some figures like ''Liu Chi'', writing in his Lun Tian of 274 AD that supported Wang's theory by arguing the inferior Yin could never obstruct the superior Yang , Liu was still outside of the mainstream accepted Confucian tradition. The Song Dynasty scientist Shen Kuo supported the old theory of a spherical sun and moon by using his own reasoning about eclipses, which he explained were due to the moon and the sun coming into obstruction of one another. The Chinese philosopher Zhu Xi also supported this theory in his writing. Although Wang Chong was right about the water cycle and other aspects of early science, his stern opposition to mainstream Confucian thought at the time made him a skeptic of all their theories, including eclipses .
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